Pulsed electric fields stimulate microglial transmitter release of VEGF, IL-8 and GLP-1 and activate endothelial cells through paracrine signaling.

As action potentials propagate along an axon, pulsed extracellular electric fields (E-fields) are induced. We investigated the role of E-fields in activating microglia cells and affecting capillary function and found that E-fields control human microglia secretions in concert with purinergic factors. We generated E-fields by applying transcranial pulsed electromagnetic fields (T-PEMF) identical to those appearing outside neurons as action potentials propagate. T-PEMF alone enhanced mRNA synthesis for VEGF, IL-8, IL-6 and the proglucagon gene as well as the PC1/3 enzyme that cleaves the proglucagon protein to glucagon and GLP-1 proteins. We found that T-PEMF enhanced secretion from microglia of VEGF, IL-8 and GLP-1 proteins having angiogenic and proliferative profiles. Interestingly, T-PEMF and purinergic transmitters together enhanced secretions confirming synergy between their actions. ATP also induced nitric oxide (NO) syntheses in distinct locations in the nucleus and the mRNA synthesis for the responsible iNOS was reduced by T-PEMF. When the microglia-secretory fluid was added to brain endothelial cells we saw vivid Ca2+ signaling and enhanced transcription of mRNA for IL-8 and VEGF. Our previous work shows that applying T-PEMF to the human brain provides up to 60% remission for patients with refractory depressions within 8 weeks and improvements for Parkinson patients. Thus, physiological E-fields activate microglia, work synergistically with neurotransmitters, and cause paracrine secretions which cause activation of capillaries. Application of these E-Fields is effective for treating refractory depressions and appear promising for treating neurodegenerative brain diseases.

Oral delivery of systemic monoclonal antibodies, peptides and small molecules using gastric auto-injectors.

Oral administration provides a simple and non-invasive approach for drug delivery. However, due to poor absorption and swift enzymatic degradation in the gastrointestinal tract, a wide range of molecules must be parenterally injected to attain required doses and pharmacokinetics. Here we present an orally dosed liquid auto-injector capable of delivering up to 4-mg doses of a bioavailable drug with the rapid pharmacokinetics of an injection, reaching an absolute bioavailability of up to 80% and a maximum plasma drug concentration within 30 min after dosing. This approach improves dosing efficiencies and pharmacokinetics an order of magnitude over our previously designed injector capsules and up to two orders of magnitude over clinically available and preclinical chemical permeation enhancement technologies. We administered the capsules to swine for delivery of clinically relevant doses of four commonly injected medications, including adalimumab, a GLP-1 analog, recombinant human insulin and epinephrine. These multi-day dosing experiments and oral administration in awake animal models support the translational potential of the system.

A microneedle platform for buccal macromolecule delivery.

Alternative means for drug delivery are needed to facilitate drug adherence and administration. Microneedles (MNs) have been previously investigated transdermally for drug delivery. To date, drug loading into MNs has been limited by drug solubility in the polymeric blend. We designed a highly drug-loaded MN patch to deliver macromolecules and applied it to the buccal area, which allows for faster delivery than the skin. We successfully delivered 1-mg payloads of human insulin and human growth hormone to the buccal cavity of swine within 30 s. In addition, we conducted a trial in 100 healthy volunteers to assess potential discomfort associated with MNs when applied in the oral cavity, identifying the hard palate as the preferred application site. We envisage that MN patches applied on buccal surfaces could increase medication adherence and facilitate the painless delivery of biologics and other drugs to many, especially for the pediatric and elderly populations.

A luminal unfolding microneedle injector for oral delivery of macromolecules.

Insulin and other injectable biologic drugs have transformed the treatment of patients suffering from diabetes1,2, yet patients and healthcare providers often prefer to use and prescribe less effective orally dosed medications3-5. Compared with subcutaneously administered drugs, oral formulations create less patient discomfort4, show greater chemical stability at high temperatures6, and do not generate biohazardous needle waste7. An oral dosage form for biologic medications is ideal; however, macromolecule drugs are not readily absorbed into the bloodstream through the gastrointestinal tract8. We developed an ingestible capsule, termed the luminal unfolding microneedle injector, which allows for the oral delivery of biologic drugs by rapidly propelling dissolvable drug-loaded microneedles into intestinal tissue using a set of unfolding arms. During ex vivo human and in vivo swine studies, the device consistently delivered the microneedles to the tissue without causing complete thickness perforations. Using insulin as a model drug, we showed that, when actuated, the luminal unfolding microneedle injector provided a faster pharmacokinetic uptake profile and a systemic uptake >10% of that of a subcutaneous injection over a 4-h sampling period. With the ability to load a multitude of microneedle formulations, the device can serve as a platform to orally deliver therapeutic doses of macromolecule drugs.

An ingestible self-orienting system for oral delivery of macromolecules.

Biomacromolecules have transformed our capacity to effectively treat diseases; however, their rapid degradation and poor absorption in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract generally limit their administration to parenteral routes. An oral biologic delivery system must aid in both localization and permeation to achieve systemic drug uptake. Inspired by the leopard tortoise's ability to passively reorient, we developed an ingestible self-orienting millimeter-scale applicator (SOMA) that autonomously positions itself to engage with GI tissue. It then deploys milliposts fabricated from active pharmaceutical ingredients directly through the gastric mucosa while avoiding perforation. We conducted in vivo studies in rats and swine that support the applicator's safety and, using insulin as a model drug, demonstrated that the SOMA delivers active pharmaceutical ingredient plasma levels comparable to those achieved with subcutaneous millipost administration.

A multi-chamber microfluidic intestinal barrier model using Caco-2 cells for drug transport studies.

This paper presents the design and fabrication of a multi-layer and multi-chamber microchip system using thiol-ene 'click chemistry' aimed for drug transport studies across tissue barrier models. The fabrication process enables rapid prototyping of multi-layer microfluidic chips using different thiol-ene polymer mixtures, where porous Teflon membranes for cell monolayer growth were incorporated by masked sandwiching thiol-ene-based fluid layers. Electrodes for trans-epithelial electrical resistance (TEER) measurements were incorporated using low-melting soldering wires in combination with platinum wires, enabling parallel real-time monitoring of barrier integrity for the eight chambers. Additionally, the translucent porous Teflon membrane enabled optical monitoring of cell monolayers. The device was developed and tested with the Caco-2 intestinal model, and compared to the conventional Transwell system. Cell monolayer differentiation was assessed via in situ immunocytochemistry of tight junction and mucus proteins, P-glycoprotein 1 (P-gp) mediated efflux of Rhodamine 123, and brush border aminopeptidase activity. Monolayer tightness and relevance for drug delivery research was evaluated through permeability studies of mannitol, dextran and insulin, alone or in combination with the absorption enhancer tetradecylmaltoside (TDM). The thiol-ene-based microchip material and electrodes were highly compatible with cell growth. In fact, Caco-2 cells cultured in the device displayed differentiation, mucus production, directional transport and aminopeptidase activity within 9-10 days of cell culture, indicating robust barrier formation at a faster rate than in conventional Transwell models. The cell monolayer displayed high TEER and tightness towards hydrophilic compounds, whereas co-administration of an absorption enhancer elicited TEER-decrease and increased permeability similar to the Transwell cultures. The presented cell barrier microdevice constitutes a relevant tissue barrier model, enabling transport studies of drugs and chemicals under real-time optical and functional monitoring in eight parallel chambers, thereby increasing the throughput compared to previously reported microdevices.

Chemically modified peptides and proteins - critical considerations for oral delivery.

Numerous approaches have been explored to date in the pursuit of delivering peptides or proteins via the oral route. One such example is chemical modification, whereby the native structure of a peptide or protein is tailored to provide a more efficient uptake across the epithelial barrier of the gastrointestinal tract via incorporation of a chemical motif or moiety. In this regard, a diverse array of concepts have been reported, ranging from the exploitation of endogenous transport mechanisms to incorporation of physicochemical modifications in the molecule, which promote more favorable interactions with the absorptive membrane at the cell surface. This review provides an overview of the modification technologies described in the literature and offers insights into some pragmatic considerations pertaining to their translation into clinically viable concepts.

Applicability and Limitations of Cell-Penetrating Peptides in Noncovalent Mucosal Drug or Carrier Delivery Systems.

Our recent studies show that cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) have potential to improve the intestinal absorption of peptide and protein drugs safely and effectively when used in the noncovalent drug--CPP approach. To clarify the applicability and limitations of this strategy, the present study examined the effects of cargo size on the absorption-stimulatory effect of CPPs. Different sizes of hydrophilic macromolecular dextran (4.4, 10, and 70 kDa) and polystyrene-based nanoparticles (20, 100, and 200 nm) were chosen as the model cargos in this study. In an in situ rat intestinal absorption study, CPPs (octaarginine, Tat, penetratin, and PenetraMax) increased the intestinal absorption of dextran, and the efficiency varied according to the molecular size of dextran. Among the CPPs, D-penetratin showed an enhancing effect even when coadministered with the largest dextran (70 kDa). By contrast, an in vitro study of Caco-2 cell uptake showed that the ability of CPPs to deliver nanoparticles into epithelial cells was dependent on their particle size and that the relatively poor internalization of 200-nm nanoparticles could be facilitated by coincubation with CPPs. These findings suggest that the intrinsic uptake properties of macromolecules and particulate cargos determine the effectiveness of their intestinal mucosal delivery using the noncovalent CPP method.

Acylation of salmon calcitonin modulates in vitro intestinal peptide flux through membrane permeability enhancement.

Acylation of peptide drugs with fatty acid chains has proven beneficial for prolonging systemic circulation, as well as increasing enzymatic stability and interactions with lipid cell membranes. Thus, acylation offers several potential benefits for oral delivery of therapeutic peptides, and we hypothesize that tailoring the acylation may be used to optimize intestinal translocation. This work aims to characterize acylated analogues of the therapeutic peptide salmon calcitonin (sCT), which lowers blood calcium, by systematically increasing acyl chain length at two positions, in order to elucidate its influence on intestinal cell translocation and membrane interaction. We find that acylation drastically increases in vitro intestinal peptide flux and confers a transient permeability enhancing effect on the cell layer. The analogues permeabilize model lipid membranes, indicating that the effect is due to a solubilization of the cell membrane, similar to transcellular oral permeation enhancers. The effect is dependent on pH, with larger effect at lower pH, and is impacted by acylation chain length and position. Compared to the unacylated peptide backbone, N-terminal acylation with a short chain provides 6- or 9-fold increase in peptide translocation at pH 7.4 and 5.5, respectively. Prolonging the chain length appears to hamper translocation, possibly due to self-association or aggregation, although the long chain acylated analogues remain superior to the unacylated peptide. For K(18)-acylation a short chain provides a moderate improvement, whereas medium and long chain analogues are highly efficient, with a 12-fold increase in permeability compared to the unacylated peptide backbone, on par with currently employed oral permeation enhancers. For K(18)-acylation the medium chain acylation appears to be optimal, as elongating the chain causes greater binding to the cell membrane but similar permeability, and we speculate that increasing the chain length further may decrease the permeability. In conclusion, acylated sCT acts as its own in vitro intestinal permeation enhancer, with reversible effects on Caco-2 cells, indicating that acylation of sCT may represent a promising tool to increase intestinal permeability without adding oral permeation enhancers.

Acylation of Glucagon-like peptide-2: interaction with lipid membranes and in vitro intestinal permeability.

BACKGROUND: Acylation of peptide drugs with fatty acid chains has proven beneficial for prolonging systemic circulation as well as increasing enzymatic stability without disrupting biological potency. Acylation has furthermore been shown to increase interactions with the lipid membranes of mammalian cells. The extent to which such interactions hinder or benefit delivery of acylated peptide drugs across cellular barriers such as the intestinal epithelia is currently unknown. The present study investigates the effect of acylating peptide drugs from a drug delivery perspective. PURPOSE: We hypothesize that the membrane interaction is an important parameter for intestinal translocation, which may be used to optimize the acylation chain length for intestinal permeation. This work aims to characterize acylated analogues of the intestinotrophic Glucagon-like peptide-2 by systematically increasing acyl chain length, in order to elucidate its influence on membrane interaction and intestinal cell translocation in vitro. RESULTS: Peptide self-association and binding to both model lipid and cell membranes was found to increase gradually with acyl chain length, whereas translocation across Caco-2 cells depended non-linearly on chain length. Short and medium acyl chains increased translocation compared to the native peptide, but long chain acylation displayed no improvement in translocation. Co-administration of a paracellular absorption enhancer was found to increase translocation irrespective of acyl chain length, whereas a transcellular enhancer displayed increased synergy with the long chain acylation. CONCLUSIONS: These results show that membrane interactions play a prominent role during intestinal translocation of an acylated peptide. Acylation benefits permeation for shorter and medium chains due to increased membrane interactions, however, for longer chains insertion in the membrane becomes dominant and hinders translocation, i.e. the peptides get 'stuck' in the cell membrane. Applying a transcellular absorption enhancer increases the dynamics of membrane insertion and detachment by fluidizing the membrane, thus facilitating its effects primarily on membrane associated peptides.

In vivo proof of concept of oral insulin delivery based on a co-administration strategy with the cell-penetrating peptide penetratin.

Oral delivery of insulin is blocked by low intestinal absorption caused by the poor permeability of insulin across cellular membranes and the susceptibility to enzymatic degradation in the gastrointestinal tract. Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) have been investigated for a number of years as oral absorption enhancers for hydrophilic macromolecules. Penetratin, a cationic and amphipathic CPP, effectively enhances insulin absorption and we were able to alleviate the enzymatic barrier by using the enzymatic resistant D-form of penetratin. In this study, mice were dosed orally with a physical mixture of insulin and penetratin. Blood glucose concentrations were measured and a pharmacological availability (PA) of 18.2% was achieved in mice dosed with insulin and D-penetratin. Following the promising data, we investigated the degradation parameters of insulin and penetratin in rat intestinal fluid. As expected, L-penetratin was degraded rapidly whereas D-penetratin had a halflife of 67±7min in 10-fold diluted gastrointestinal fluid. Insulin degradation was slowed by the presence of penetratin in intestinal fluid. The half-life of insulin increased from 24.9±4.5min to 55.6±14min and 90.5±11.8min in the presence of L- and D-penetratin respectively. In conclusion, both Land D-penetratin acted as oral absorption enhancers at select CPP concentrations for insulin and the current study is the first solid evidence of pharmacological activity of oral insulin delivery systems based on non-covalent intermolecular interactions with penetratin.

The role of citric acid in oral peptide and protein formulations: relationship between calcium chelation and proteolysis inhibition.

The excipient citric acid (CA) has been reported to improve oral absorption of peptides by different mechanisms. The balance between its related properties of calcium chelation and permeation enhancement compared to a proteolysis inhibition was examined. A predictive model of CA's calcium chelation activity was developed and verified experimentally using an ion-selective electrode. The effects of CA, its salt (citrate, Cit) and the established permeation enhancer, lauroyl carnitine chloride (LCC) were compared by measuring transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and permeability of insulin and FD4 across Caco-2 monolayers and rat small intestinal mucosae mounted in Ussing chambers. Proteolytic degradation of insulin was determined in rat luminal extracts across a range of pH values in the presence of CA. CA's capacity to chelate calcium decreased ~10-fold for each pH unit moving from pH 6 to pH 3. CA was an inferior weak permeation enhancer compared to LCC in both in vitro models using physiological buffers. At pH 4.5 however, degradation of insulin in rat luminal extracts was significantly inhibited in the presence of 10mM CA. The capacity of CA to chelate luminal calcium does not occur significantly at the acidic pH values where it effectively inhibits proteolysis, which is its dominant action in oral peptide formulations. On account of insulin's low basal permeability, inclusion of alternative permeation enhancers is likely to be necessary to achieve sufficient oral bioavailability since this is a weak property of CA.

Stable assembly of HIV-1 export complexes occurs cotranscriptionally.

The HIV-1 Rev protein mediates export of unspliced and singly spliced viral transcripts by binding to the Rev response element (RRE) and recruiting the cellular export factor CRM1. Here, we investigated the recruitment of Rev to the transcription sites of HIV-1 reporters that splice either post- or cotranscriptionally. In both cases, we observed that Rev localized to the transcription sites of the reporters and recruited CRM1. Rev and CRM1 remained at the reporter transcription sites when cells were treated with the splicing inhibitor Spliceostatin A (SSA), showing that the proteins associate with RNA prior to or during early spliceosome assembly. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) revealed that Rev and CRM1 have similar kinetics as the HIV-1 RNA, indicating that Rev, CRM1, and RRE-containing RNAs are released from the site of transcription in one single export complex. These results suggest that cotranscriptional formation of a stable export complex serves as a means to ensure efficient export of unspliced viral RNAs.

Intestinal mucosa permeability following oral insulin delivery using core shell corona nanolipoparticles.

Chitosan nanoparticles (NC) have excellent capacity for protein entrapment, favorable epithelial permeability, and are regarded as promising nanocarriers for oral protein delivery. Herein, we designed and evaluated a class of core shell corona nanolipoparticles (CSC) to further improve the absorption through enhanced intestinal mucus penetration. CSC contains chitosan nanoparticles as a core component and pluronic F127-lipid vesicles as a shell with hydrophilic chain and polyethylene oxide PEO as a corona. These particles were developed by hydration of a dry pluronic F127-lipid film with NC suspensions followed by extrusion. Insulin nested inside CSC was well protected from enzymatic degradation. Compared with NC, CSC exhibited significantly higher efficiency of mucosal penetration and, consequently, higher cellular internalization of insulin in mucus secreting E12 cells. The cellular level of insulin after CSC treatment was 36-fold higher compared to treatment with free insulin, and 10-fold higher compared to NC. CSC significantly facilitated the permeation of insulin across the ileum epithelia, as demonstrated in an ex vivo study and an in vivo absorption study. CSC pharmacological studies in diabetic rats showed that the hypoglycemic effects of orally administrated CSC were 2.5-fold higher compared to NC. In conclusion, CSC is a promising oral protein delivery system to enhance the stability, intestinal mucosal permeability, and oral absorption of insulin.

Colonic absorption of salmon calcitonin using tetradecyl maltoside (TDM) as a permeation enhancer.

Calcitonin is used as a second line treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis, but widespread acceptance is somewhat limited by subcutaneous and intranasal routes of delivery. This study attempted to enable intestinal sCT absorption in rats using the mild surfactant, tetradecyl maltoside (TDM) as an intestinal permeation enhancer. Human Caco-2 and HT29-MTX-E12 mucus-covered intestinal epithelial monolayers were used for permeation studies. Rat in situ intestinal instillation studies were conducted to evaluate the absorption of sCT with and without 0.1 w/v% TDM in jejunum, ileum and colon. TDM significantly enhanced sCT permeation across intestinal epithelial monolayers, most likely due to combined paracellular and transcellular actions. In situ, TDM caused an increased absolute bioavailability of sCT in rat colon from 1.0% to 4.6%, whereas no enhancement increase was observed in ileal and jejunal instillations. Histological analysis suggested mild perturbation of colonic epithelia in segments instilled with sCT and TDM. These data suggest that the membrane composition of the colon is different to the small intestine and that it is more amenable to permeation enhancement. Thus, formulations designed to release payload in the colon could be advantageous for systemic delivery of poorly permeable molecules.

Evaluation of alkylmaltosides as intestinal permeation enhancers: comparison between rat intestinal mucosal sheets and Caco-2 monolayers.

Alkylmaltosides are a class of non-ionic surfactant currently in clinical trials to improve nasal permeation of peptide drugs, however few studies have detailed their potential effects on intestinal permeation enhancement. Tetradecyl maltoside (TDM, C(14)), was examined in Caco-2 monolayers and in isolated rat jejunal and colonic mucosae mounted in Ussing chambers. Dodecyl maltoside (DDM, C(12)) was examined in mucosae. Parameters measured included critical micelle concentration (CMC), transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER), and apparent permeability coefficients (P(app)) of paracellular and transcellular flux markers. TDM and DDM decreased TEER and increased the P(app) of [(14)C]-mannitol and FD-4 across Caco-2 monolayers and colonic mucosae in the concentration range of 0.01-0.1% w/v, concentrations much higher than the CMC. Remarkably, neither agent had any effect on the TEER or fluxes of jejunal mucosae. Histopathology, cell death assays (MTT and LDH) and sub-lethal high content cytotoxicity analyses (HCA) were carried out with TDM. Exposure of colonic mucosae to high concentrations of TDM had no major effects on gross histology and ion transport function was retained. In Caco-2, HCA data at sub-lethal concentrations of TDM was consistent with the action of a mild non-ionic surfactant. In conclusion, alkylmaltosides are effective non-toxic permeation enhancers in isolated colonic tissue and their inclusion in oral peptide formulations directed to that intestinal region warrants further study.

Bioresponsive hyperbranched polymers for siRNA and miRNA delivery.

This work presents the novel use of reducible hyperbranched (rHB) polymers for delivery of RNA interference (RNAi) therapeutics. Cationic poly(amido amine) hyperbranched polymers that contain different contents of reducible disulfide to nonreducible linkages (0%, 17%, 25%, and 50%) were used to form interpolyelectrolyte polyplexes with siRNA and precursor miRNA (pre-miRNA). Atomic force microscopy (AFM) revealed rHB complexes of ∼100 nm in size, which exhibited redox-activated disassembly in the presence of dithiothreitol (DTT). The complexes were avidly internalized and showed no cellular toxicity in an endogenous enhanced green fluorescence protein (EGFP) expressing H1299 human lung cancer cell line. The highest specific EGFP gene silencing (∼75%) was achieved with rHB (17%)/siRNA complexes at a weight-to-weight (w/w) ratio of 40 that correlated with the ability for this polymer to successfully transfect pre-miRNA. Evaluation of temporal silencing levels over 72 h revealed incremental knockdown that reached a maximum at 72 h for the rHB (50%) complexes, in contrast to maximum knockdown at 24 h that remained relatively consistent, thereafter, for the rHB (17%), rHB (25%), and non-rHB complexes. The role of particle disassembly for intracellular targeting and modulation of gene silencing addressed in this work are important considerations in the development of this and other next-generation delivery systems.

Intracellular siRNA and precursor miRNA trafficking using bioresponsive copolypeptides.

BACKGROUND: Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) can induce specific gene silencing through cytoplasmic mRNA cleavage and nuclear transcriptional silencing, necessitating delivery to different cellular compartments. This study presents a reducible copolypeptide (rCPP) carrier containing different molar ratios of a histidine-rich peptide (HRP) and nuclear localization sequence (NLS) peptide to modulate intracellular trafficking of transfected siRNA and primary RNA transcripts (pri-miRNA). METHODS: Polyplex formation using siRNA and rCPP was demonstrated using photon correlation spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy. Confocal and fluorescence microscopy were used to investigate cellular uptake and nuclear trafficking whilst endogenous enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) knockdown in H1299 cells was evaluated using flow cytometry. Transcriptional gene silencing of endogenous EF1A was verified using real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and pri-miRNA nuclear processing was demonstrated using Northern analysis. RESULTS: rCPP-based polyplexes showed rapid cellular uptake and low cytotoxicity. Labelled components revealed intact polyplexes after 2 h that exhibited directed movements consistent with endosomal trafficking. Polyplex-mediated knockdown of EGFP increased with greater HRP content. The inclusion of NLS promoted nuclear localization of transfected siRNAs and pri-miRNAs to the nuclear compartment allowing for transcriptional silencing of EF1A and Drosha and Dicer dependent expression of mature miRNA, respectively. CONCLUSION: Our results demonstrate that reducible copolypeptides can be used as carriers for the non-toxic cellular delivery of siRNA and pri-miRNA. The nuclear targeting of rCPPs can be utilized for delivery of siRNAs and pri-miRNAs to the nuclear compartment for transcriptional gene silencing or endogenous processing into mature miRNA, respectively, which could potentially lead to improved therapeutic approaches.

The influence of polymeric properties on chitosan/siRNA nanoparticle formulation and gene silencing.

We have previously introduced the use of the biomaterial chitosan to form chitosan/siRNA nanoparticles for gene silencing protocols. This present study shows that the physicochemical properties (size, zeta potential, morphology and complex stability) and in vitro gene silencing of chitosan/siRNA nanoparticles are strongly dependent on chitosan molecular weight (Mw) and degree of deacetylation (DD). High Mw and DD chitosan resulted in the formation of discrete stable nanoparticles approximately 200 nm in size. Chitosan/siRNA formulations (N:P 50) prepared with low Mw (approximately 10 kDa) showed almost no knockdown of endogenous enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) in H1299 human lung carcinoma cells, whereas those prepared from higher Mw (64.8-170 kDa) and DD (approximately 80%) showed greater gene silencing ranging between 45% and 65%. The highest gene silencing efficiency (80%) was achieved using chitosan/siRNA nanoparticles at N:P 150 using higher Mw (114 and 170 kDa) and DD (84%) that correlated with formation of stable nanoparticles of approximately 200 nm. In conclusion, this work confirms the application of chitosan as a non-viral carrier for siRNA and the importance of polymeric properties for the optimisation of gene silencing using chitosan/siRNA nanoparticles.

RNA interference in vitro and in vivo using a novel chitosan/siRNA nanoparticle system.

This work introduces a novel chitosan-based siRNA nanoparticle delivery system for RNA interference in vitro and in vivo. The formation of interpolyelectrolyte complexes between siRNA duplexes (21-mers) and chitosan polymer into nanoparticles, ranging from 40 to 600 nm, was shown using atomic force microscopy and photon correlation spectroscopy. Rapid uptake (1 h) of Cy5-labeled nanoparticles into NIH 3T3 cells, followed by accumulation over a 24 h period, was visualized using fluorescence microscopy. Nanoparticle-mediated knockdown of endogenous enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) was demonstrated in both H1299 human lung carcinoma cells and murine peritoneal macrophages (77.9% and 89.3% reduction in EGFP fluorescence, respectively). In addition, Western analysis showed approximately 90% reduced expression of BCR/ABL-1 leukemia fusion protein while BCR expression was unaffected in K562 (Ph(+)) cells after transfection using nanoparticles containing siRNA specific to the BCR/ABL-1 junction sequence. Effective in vivo RNA interference was achieved in bronchiole epithelial cells of transgenic EGFP mice after nasal administration of chitosan/siRNA formulations (37% and 43% reduction compared to mismatch and untreated control, respectively). These findings highlight the potential application of this novel chitosan-based system in RNA-mediated therapy of systemic and mucosal disease.