Development and Initial Validation of the Parenting Styles Circumplex Inventory (PSCI).

Parenting style refers to the emotional climate in which parents nurture and guide their child's social development. Despite the prominence of parenting style research, many studies still create their own psychometrically untested measures of parenting styles, use measures that do not capture the uninvolved parenting style, or use median splits to convert dimensional assessments into parenting style typologies. To address these measurement issues, the current studies developed the Parenting Styles Circumplex Inventory (PSCI) which is rooted in Contemporary Integrative Interpersonal Theory and provides a framework to unite typology and dimensional parenting style measurement approaches. The current article describes the development and initial validation of the PSCI across three samples of college students (Ns = 571, 361, 385). The 32-item PSCI consists of eight octant scales which each assess unique combinations of parental responsiveness and demandingness. The measure asks respondents to answer each question about their mother- and/or father-figure. The circumplex structure of the PSCI was confirmed and replicated across studies and the PSCI demonstrated meaningful associations with indicators of parenting practices, relationship functioning, psychopathology symptoms, and substance use. Results from this study provide initial support for the PSCI as a path forward for measuring parenting styles.

Colorectal cancer information avoidance is associated with screening adherence.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the fourth most common cancer among U.S. men and women and the second deadliest. Effective screening modalities can either prevent CRC or find it earlier, but fewer than two thirds of U.S. adults are adherent to CRC screening guidelines. We tested whether people who defensively avoid CRC information have lower adherence to CRC screening recommendations and weaker intentions for being screened and whether CRC information avoidance adds predictive ability beyond known determinants of screening. Participants, aged 45-75 years, completed a survey about known structural determinants of CRC screening (healthcare coverage, healthcare use, provider recommendation), CRC information avoidance tendencies, and screening behavior (n = 887) and intentions (n = 425). Models were tested with multivariable regression and structural equation modeling (SEM). To the extent that participants avoided CRC information, they had lower odds of being adherent to CRC screening guidelines (OR = 0.55) and if non-adherent, less likely to intend to be screened (b=-0.50). In the SEM model, avoidance was negatively associated with each known structural determinant of screening and with lower screening adherence (ps < 0.01). Fit was significantly worse for nested SEM models when avoidance was not included, (i.e., the paths to avoidance were fixed to zero). Information avoidance was associated with screening behavior and other known structural determinants of screening adherence, potentially compounding its influence. Novel strategies are needed to reach avoiders, including health communication messaging that disrupts avoidance and interventions external to the healthcare system, with which avoiders are less engaged.

Reinforcement sensitivity theory and externalizing problems across early adolescence: Testing within-person reciprocal associations.

Temperament and externalizing problems are closely linked, but research on how they codevelop across adolescence remains sparse and equivocal. Reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) provides a useful framework for understanding temperament and externalizing problems associations. During adolescence, oppositional problems are posited to be linked to an overactive behavioral approach system (BAS) while conduct problems are linked to an underactive behavioral inhibition system (BIS). However, this research mostly uses adult samples and cross-sectional designs and tests only between-person associations. Moreover, most studies typically test only one direction of effects (i.e., temperament predicts externalizing problems) and do not consider alternative models of associations, such as reciprocal associations. To address these limitations, we use three annual waves of a longitudinal, community-based sample of 387 early adolescents (mean Wave 1 age = 11.61 years, 55% female, 83% non-Hispanic White) to test reciprocal associations between BIS and BAS and oppositional and conduct problems. Latent curve models with structured residuals are used to test hypotheses and disaggregate between- and within-person associations. Evidence supports within-person reciprocal associations between BAS and oppositional problems and between BIS and combined conduct and oppositional problems. Results potentially inform developmental theories of temperament and externalizing problems linkages and interventions with adolescents who are engaging in oppositional problems and more severe conduct problems. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Variance Decomposition of the Continuous Assessment of Interpersonal Dynamics (CAID) system: Assessing sources of influence and reliability of observations of parent-teen interactions.

The Continuous Assessment of Interpersonal Dynamics (CAID) is an observational tool that measures warmth and dominance dynamics in real time and is sensitive to individual, dyadic, and contextual influences. Parent-adolescent interpersonal dynamics, which conceptually map onto parenting styles, are an integral part of positive adolescent adjustment and protect against risky outcomes. The current study's goal was to test the degree to which sources of influence on CAID data observed in a previous study of married couples generalize to a sample of parent-adolescent dyads. We examined data from ten raters who rated moment-to-moment warmth and dominance using CAID in a sample of 61 parent-adolescent dyads (N = 122) who were largely non-Hispanic White (62%) or African American (30%) based on parent report (adolescent M age = 14; 57% female). Dyads interacted in four different discussion segments (situations). We applied Generalizability Theory to delineate several sources of variance in CAID parameters and estimated within and between-person reliability. Results revealed a number of different influences, including the person, kinsperson (adolescent versus parent), dyad, rater, situation, and interactions among these factors, on ratings of parent-adolescent interpersonal behavior. These results largely replicate results from married couples, suggesting that the factors that influence ratings of interpersonal interactions largely generalize across sample types.

The Acquired Preparedness Model of Cannabis Use in Emerging Adulthood: Comparing Within-Person and Between-Person Effects.

OBJECTIVE: The acquired preparedness model (APM) posits that high sensitivity to reward biases individuals to learn and maintain positive outcome expectancies, which in turn increase substance use, and that high sensitivity to punishment biases individuals to learn and maintain negative outcome expectancies, decreasing use. Little work has applied the APM to cannabis use, particularly with longitudinal data and methods that separate within- and between-person associations. The current study addressed these gaps. METHOD: The sample comprised 314 emerging adults (age range: 19.13-21.39 years; 52% female; predominantly non-Hispanic White [76%] or African American [15%]) recruited using random-digit dialing. Data were taken from three annual assessments. Latent curve models with structure residuals were used to distinguish between- and within-person associations. We controlled for bidirectional associations and demographic covariates. RESULTS: At the between-person level, high sensitivity to reward was related to high positive expectancies and high cannabis use. High positive expectancies were associated with high cannabis use. High sensitivity to punishment was related to high negative expectancies and low cannabis use. No within-person associations were supported. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest a risk profile for emerging adult cannabis use involving high sensitivity to reward and positive expectancies and a protective profile involving high sensitivity to punishment and negative expectancies. However, our findings did not support the notion that the proposed learning processes unfold within individuals across annual assessments. Most notably, the findings emphasize the importance of disaggregating within- and between-person associations using a longitudinal design to better understand pathways to cannabis use in the developmental period of emerging adulthood.

Developmental Cascade Effects of Maternal Depression on Offspring Substance Use Across Adolescence: Pathway Through Mother-Child Relationship Quality and Peer Deviancy.

There is evidence that maternal depression can disrupt adolescent social development and trigger a risk cascade to adolescent substance use that involves poor quality mother-child relationships (Lovejoy et al., 2000) and affiliation with deviant peers (Visser et al., 2012). However, relatively little work has considered maternal depression as a catalyst for this risk pathway to adolescent substance use. The current study aims to clarify whether maternal depression has cascading effects to adolescent substance use through related developmental systems. Using structural equation modeling and bootstrapping for testing indirect effects, we tested the prospective association between maternal depression and middle adolescent substance use and whether poor mother-child relationship quality and peer deviancy mediated this relationship. We controlled for a variety of important cofounding variables. The sample included N = 338 adolescents (57% female; predominantly non-Hispanic Caucasian (83.14%) or African American (8.88%)) and mothers drawn from a larger nine-year longitudinal study of adolescent substance use. Data from wave 1 through wave 6 of the longitudinal project were utilized. The average age of adolescents was 11.6, 12.6, 13.6, 14.6, 15.5, and 16.6 at W1-W6, respectively. The indirect effect from maternal depression to substance use was supported (ab = 0.03, 95% CI [0.002, 0.07]). Findings emphasize that future work should more closely examine how maternal depression operates in developmental cascade models of adolescent substance use.

Contextualizing Cannabis Implicit Associations: Consideration of Peers and Personality.

Objective: Implicit cannabis associations (ICAs) inconsistently predict cannabis use (CU), and little is known about their formation. Personality, behavioral approach and inhibition, were tested as predictors of ICAs, which in turn, was expected to predict CU (mediation). Peer context was tested as a moderator. Method: Data were taken from three annual assessments of a larger longitudinal study. The community sample (314 emerging adults, mean age = 19.13, 54% female, 76% White/non-Hispanic at the first assessment) completed an ICA task and questionnaire assessments of CU, personality, and peer norms. Results: ICAs were positively associated with CU at high but not low levels of perceived peer approval/use. Behavioral inhibition was negatively associated ICAs, which in turn, predicted infrequent CU at high levels of peer approval/use (moderated mediation). Behavioral approach was marginally associated with ICAs. Conclusions: Peer context and personality are important for understanding the formation of ICAs and their association with CU.

The moderating effects of alcohol use with and without parent permission on alcohol risk communication in early adolescence.

The frequency of parental alcohol risk communication (ARC) is considered an integral component of socializing youth about alcohol, but the literature offers mixed findings on whether such communication is protective. Early adolescents' prior drinking experiences may moderate the effectiveness of ARC, but evidence for such an interaction is inconsistent. One limitation of this work considering prior drinking experience is that it has not distinguished drinking with versus without parental permission. Parents are one of the earliest sources of information about alcohol use and many parents view allowing adolescents to drink alcohol with permission as a harm reduction strategy, despite some work suggesting the opposite effect. Using a random effects multilevel regression, we tested the unique moderating effects of drinking with and without parental permission on the prospective association between alcohol risk communication and later drinking without parental permission. Adolescent and parent dyads completed 3 annual assessments (first assessment mean age = 12.6, 52% girls, 76% White/non-Hispanic). Results supported a three-way interaction. There was a modest protective effect of parental ARC on later adolescent drinking, but only for adolescents who had prior experience drinking both with and without parental permission. For all other combinations of prior drinking experience, parental communication was not prospectively related to later drinking. These results help clarify the mixed literature on alcohol communication and suggests that ARC may help reduce some of the risk associated with allowing youth to drink alcohol but only for youth who also have experience with alcohol outside of parental supervision.

Parents' Cannabis-Related Attitudes and Emerging Adult Offspring Cannabis Use: Testing the Mediating Effect of Perceived Parental Approval.

Background: Contrary to parental alcohol use and expectancies work, little is known about how parent's cannabis use (CU) and expectancies influence offspring CU. This is a notable gap in the literature given increasing acceptability and use of cannabis, especially among emerging adults (EA). Moreover, limited work has tested mechanisms of transmission of risk from these parent factors. This study addresses these gaps by testing prospective associations of parental CU and expectancies with offspring CU and CU problems, and perceived parental approval of offspring CU as a potential mediator. Method: A community sample of 314 EA and caregiver dyads completed three annual assessments (mean age = 19.13). The sample was 54% female and majority White/non-Hispanic (76%). Caregivers reported on their cannabis expectancies and use, and EA reported on their CU, CU-related problems, and perceived parental approval of CU. Results: Longitudinal structural equation modeling supported a mediated pathway such that high parental positive cannabis expectancies were associated with perceived parental approval of CU, which in turn, predicted increases in EA CU and CU problems. Parental negative expectancies had a significant indirect effect but in the opposite direction. Indirect effects were found above and beyond parental CU, which was not associated with offspring CU. Conclusions: This is the first study to test prospective indirect effects of parental cannabis expectancies on offspring CU. Findings suggest parents' attitudes, even in the absence of parental use, confer risk for offspring use by shaping perceived acceptance of CU, suggesting parental expectancies as targets for parent-based CU interventions.

Alcohol-Specific Communication and Emerging Adult Offspring's Perceived Parental Approval and Drinking in the Context of Parent Alcohol Expectancies.

BACKGROUND: There are mixed findings in the literature regarding the association between parental alcohol communication and offspring alcohol use. To clarify this association, this study tested a prospective mediated moderation model in which the association between parental communication about the risks of alcohol use and emerging adult offspring drinking was mediated by offspring perceived parental approval of drinking. Parental alcohol expectancies and use were tested as moderators of the link between communication and perceived approval. METHOD: The community sample of 378 emerging adult and caregiver dyads completed 3 annual assessments (first assessment mean age = 19.13). The sample was 54% female and majority White/non-Hispanic (76%). Caregivers reported on their own alcohol expectancies and use, and emerging adult offspring reported on parental communication of alcohol risks, perceived parental approval of drinking, and their own alcohol use. Multilevel modeling was used to test hypotheses. RESULTS: Mediated moderation was largely supported. More frequent communication about the risks of drinking was prospectively associated with low levels of perceived parental approval of alcohol use, which in turn was associated with low levels of offspring drinking. This pathway depended on parental alcohol expectancies. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that including mediators (e.g., perceived approval of drinking) helps to clarify the mixed literature on parental communication about alcohol and that parental attitudes about alcohol can impact the effectiveness with which parents convey the risk of alcohol to offspring.

Intoxication Effects on Impulsive Alcohol Choice in Heavy Drinkers: Correlation With Sensation Seeking and Differential Effects by Commodity.

BACKGROUND: The preference for immediate rewards and high sensation seeking are both potent risk factors for alcohol use disorder (AUD), but how they interact during intoxication is poorly understood. To model decision making linked to AUD risk, we tested heavy drinkers for impulsive choice (delay discounting with alcohol:money or money:money) and behavioral sensation seeking using a novel odor choice task. Laboratory tasks measured actual behavior with real contingencies. Our goals were to determine, in heavy drinkers, (i) alcohol's effects on delay discounting, and (ii) how AUD risk factors relate to delay discounting, and (iii) how delay discounting with alcohol choices compares with strictly monetary choices. METHODS: Thirty-five heavy drinkers (≥2 binges per month; age = 22.8 ± 2.2; 20 male; 5.8 ± 2.3 drinks/drinking day) performed cross-commodity discounting (CCD) of immediate alcohol vs. delayed money, a monetary delay discounting (DD), and behavioral sensation-seeking tasks. CCD and DD were performed while sober and during controlled alcohol infusion targeting 0.08 g/dl. The behavioral sensation-seeking task presented binary choices of odorants varying in intensity and novelty, and the risk of exposure to a malodorant. RESULTS: CCD and DD behaviors were highly correlated across conditions, mean r = 0.64. Alcohol increased delayed reward preference in DD, p = 0.001, but did not alter mean CCD, p > 0.16. However, alcohol-induced changes in CCD correlated with behavioral sensation seeking, such that higher sensation seekers' immediate alcohol preference increased when intoxicated, p = 0.042; self-reported sensation seeking was uncorrelated, ps > 0.08. Behavioral sensation seeking also correlated with "want" alcohol following a priming dose targeting 0.035 g/dl, p = 0.021. CCD and DD did not correlate with self-reported drinking problems or other personality risk traits. CONCLUSIONS: Alcohol increased impulsive alcohol choice in high sensation seekers, suggesting an interaction that may underlie impaired control of drinking, at least in a subset of heavy drinkers-consistent with models highlighting high novelty/sensation-seeking AUD subtypes. Discounting behavior overall appears to be a generalized process, and relatively stable across methods, repeated testing, and intoxication. These findings further support the utility of behavioral tasks in uncovering key behavioral phenotypes in AUD.

Quantifying Behavioral Sensation Seeking With the Aroma Choice Task.

Our goal was to develop a behavioral measure of sensation seeking (SS). The Aroma Choice Task (ACT) assesses preference for an intense, novel, varied, and risky (exciting) option versus a mild, safe (boring) option using real-time odorant delivery. A total of 147 healthy young adults completed 40 binary choice trials. We examined (1) intensity and pleasantness of odorants, (2) stability of responding, (3) association with SS self-report, and (4) association with self-reported illicit drug use. Participants' preference for the "exciting" option versus the safe option was significantly associated with self-reported SS (p < .001) and illicit drug use (p = .041). Odorant ratings comported with their intended intensity. The ACT showed good internal, convergent, and criterion validity. We propose that the ACT might permit more objective SS assessment for investigating the biological bases of psychiatric conditions marked by high SS, particularly addiction. The ACT measures SS behaviorally, mitigating some self-report challenges and enabling real-time assessment, for example, for functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).