Zinc and Copper Ions Induce Aggregation of Human ß-Crystallins.

Cataracts are defined as the clouding of the lens due to the formation of insoluble protein aggregates. Metal ions exposure has been recognized as a risk factor in the cataract formation process. The γ and ß crystallins are members of a larger family and share several structural features. Several studies have shown that copper and zinc ions induce the formation of γ-crystallins aggregates. However, the interaction of metal ions with ß-crystallins, some of the most abundant crystallins in the lens, has not been explored until now. Here, we evaluate the effect of Cu(II) and Zn(II) ions on the aggregation of HßA1, as a representative of the acidic form, and HßB2, as a representative of the basic ß-crystallins. We used several biophysical techniques and computational methods to show that Cu(II) and Zn(II) induce aggregation following different pathways. Both metal ions destabilize the proteins and impact protein folding. Copper induced a small conformational change in HßA1, leading to high-molecular-weight light-scattering aggregates, while zinc is more aggressive towards HßB2 and induces a larger conformational change. Our work provides information on the mechanisms of metal-induced aggregation of ß-crystallins.

Macrophage alteration induced by inflammatory toxins isolated from Tityus discrepans scorpion venom. The role of Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchangers.

We study the effect of all Tityus discrepans venom components on macrophage alterations. Only seven toxins called "Inflammatory Toxin" (InfTx1-7) induced cell changes. Incubation with InfTx1 through InfTx5 rose macrophage NO level at 2 h toxin exposure. Cells rose NO release by 4 h exposure with InfTx2 and InfTx5, the NO levels reached concentrations similar or higher than the induced by lipopolysaccharides (LPS) incubation. InfTx2, -6 and -7 increased cell TNF-α release. InfTx2 as LPS roses cell TNF-α secretion gradually in time. Macrophages were loaded with fluorescent dyes, exposed to all toxins and observed with a 3D wide field deconvolution setup. Cells exposed to whole venom or InfTx4 through InfTx7 developed pseudopodia, cytoplasm prolongations, blebs, and loss their rounded form. The molecular masses and N-terminal sequences of InfTx4 through InfTx7 were analyzed by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and Edman degradation. InfTx4-7 induced a remarkable increase of intracellular Ca(2+) levels ([Ca(2+)]i), measured as a rise of normalized cell green fluorescence intensity (FI) ×2.7, ×2.6, ×95 and ×2.9 the controls, respectively. InfTx6-7 action mechanisms were studied under different conditions. Results suggested that InfTx6 interact with a membrane sodium channel inducing cell depolarization with a consequent increase on intracellular [Na(+)], this would activate Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger 3 (NCX) in the reverse mode and the phospholipase C inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (PLC-IP3) signaling pathway inducing [Ca(2+)]i overload. Inftx7 should activate the NCX in reverse mode and/or should activate the Na(+)/H(+) exchanger, increasing intracellular [Na(+)] which indirectly induce the activation of NCX3rv and the PLC-IP3 signaling pathway. All these mechanisms would cooperate with the [Ca(2+)]i overload. A rise of [Ca(2+)]i activates the synthesis and secretion of inflammatory molecules like TNF-α, which in turn, increases the gene transcription for inducible nitric oxide synthase, resulting on NO production.