Assessing muscle architecture with ultrasound: implications for spasticity.

Botulinum Neurotoxin Type A (BoNT-A) injections using Ultrasound (US) guidance have led to research evaluating changes in muscle architecture. Controversy remains as to what constitutes increased Echo-Intensity (EI) in spastic muscles and whether this may affect outcomes. We aim to provide a narrative review of US muscle architecture changes following Central Nervous System (CNS) lesions and explore their relationship to spasticity. Medline, CINAHL, and Embase databases were searched with keywords: ultrasonography, hypertonia, spasticity, fibrosis, and Heckmatt. Three physicians reviewed the results of the search to select relevant papers. Reviews identified in the search were used as a resource to identify additional studies. A total of 68 papers were included. Four themes were identified, including histopathological changes in spastic muscle, effects of BoNT-A on the muscle structure, available US modalities to assess the muscle, and utility of US assessment in clinical spasticity. Histopathological studies revealed atrophic and fibro-fatty changes after CNS lesions. Several papers described BoNT-A injections contributing to those modifications. These changes translated to increased EI. The exact significance of increased muscle EI remains unclear. The Modified Heckmatt Scale (MHS) is a validated tool for grading muscle EI in spasticity. The use of the US may be an important tool to assess muscle architecture changes in spasticity and improve spasticity management. Treatment algorithms may be developed based on the degree of EI. Further research is needed to determine the incidence and impact of these EI changes in spastic muscles.

Upper Limb Casting Application Post-Botulinum Toxin Injection for Elbow Spasticity: A Guided Casting Protocol.

ABSTRACT: Casting is an effective adjunctive treatment, which increases the effects of botulinum toxin on patients with spasticity. The evidence for casting as an adjunctive therapy post-botulinum toxin has been well documented in the literature. However, standardized casting protocols are lacking, with no published descriptions of upper limb casting application post-botulinum toxin injection for spasticity. In this article, we will describe our experience regarding the application of upper limb casting as an adjunctive therapy for elbow spasticity, detailing indications, contraindications, and description of our protocol (materials required and technique).

Selecting Goals and Target Muscles for Botulinum Toxin A Injection Using the Goal Oriented Facilitated Approach to Spasticity Treatment (GO-FAST) Tool.

The objective of this article is to introduce the GO-FAST Tool (developed by the Toxnet group) to clinicians working in the field of neurological rehabilitation, specifically post-stroke spasticity management. The concepts utilized in the Tool and described in this article can be broadly grouped into five topics: the principles of patient-centred goal-setting; an algorithm for setting SMART (specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, and timed) treatment goals; goal-related target muscles and botulinum toxin type A dose determinants; goal attainment follow-up, scoring, and interpretation; and the multimodal approach to spasticity management. The Tool can enhance clinical practice by providing guided assistance with goal-setting and target muscle selection for botulinum toxin type A treatment. It also provides support with the follow-up evaluation of goal attainment and calculation of treatment success. The Tool is designed to be used by clinicians with varying levels of expertise in the field of neurological rehabilitation and post-stroke spasticity management, from those who are new to the field to those with many years of experience. A case study is presented in the Results Section of the article to illustrate the utility of the Tool in setting SMART treatment goals in the management of patients with post-stroke spasticity.

Sensor-Based Rehabilitation in Neurological Diseases: A Bibliometric Analysis of Research Trends.

BACKGROUND: As the field of sensor-based rehabilitation continues to expand, it is important to gain a comprehensive understanding of its current research landscape. This study aimed to conduct a bibliometric analysis to identify the most influential authors, institutions, journals, and research areas in this field. METHODS: A search of the Web of Science Core Collection was performed using keywords related to sensor-based rehabilitation in neurological diseases. The search results were analyzed with CiteSpace software using bibliometric techniques, including co-authorship analysis, citation analysis, and keyword co-occurrence analysis. RESULTS: Between 2002 and 2022, 1103 papers were published on the topic, with slow growth from 2002 to 2017, followed by a rapid increase from 2018 to 2022. The United States was the most active country, while the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology had the highest number of publications among institutions. Sensors published the most papers. The top keywords included rehabilitation, stroke, and recovery. The clusters of keywords comprised machine learning, specific neurological conditions, and sensor-based rehabilitation technologies. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of sensor-based rehabilitation research in neurological diseases, highlighting the most influential authors, journals, and research themes. The findings can help researchers and practitioners to identify emerging trends and opportunities for collaboration and can inform the development of future research directions in this field.

Recommendations for Ultrasound Guidance for Diagnostic Nerve Blocks for Spasticity. What Are the Benefits?

The diagnostic nerve block (DNB) for spasticity is the percutaneous application of an anesthetic to an individual peripheral nerve trunk (mixed motor sensory nerve), nerve branch to a muscle or an intramuscular branch. The DNB causes a temporary paralysis to assess the contribution of muscle(s) on the spastic pattern and may unmask a fully or partially increased joint range of motion. The anesthetic literature supports the use of ultrasound (US) guidance to improve nerve blocks for sensory targets. This communication summarizes the potential advantages that support the use of US to improve DNB technique. Nerves are much smaller than muscle targets and have various known innervation patterns. US allows for rapid localization of the target before injection, particularly in complex anatomy patterns. The nerve trunks are typically found adjacent to or encapsulating blood vessels, which can be quickly identified with or without color Doppler, allowing the clinician to scan from the vessels to the target and avoid intravascular injection. Lower stimulation levels can be used as the targeted muscle(s) can be seen stimulating rather than only on the surface. A shorter needle insertion time and lower stimulation levels should cause less discomfort to the patient. Smaller volumes of anesthetic may be used as the fluid is seen reaching its target and cessation of stimulation is observed. Further study is needed to identify evidence supporting US utilization with electrical stimulation in DNBs for spasticity management, as US use during nerve blocks for perineurial anesthesia has demonstrated improved patient safety and procedural efficiency.

Canadian Physicians' Use of Intramuscular Botulinum Toxin Injections for Shoulder Spasticity: A National Cross-Sectional Survey.

Spasticity of the upper extremity can result in severe pain, along with many complications that can impair a patient's activities of daily living. Failure to treat patients with spasticity of the upper limb can result in a decrease in the range of motion of joints and contracture development, leading to further restriction in daily activities. We aimed to investigate the practice patterns of Canadian physicians who utilize Botulinum toxin type-A (BoNT-A) injections in the management of shoulder spasticity. 50 Canadian Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (PM&R) physicians completed a survey with an estimated completion rate of (36.23%). The demographics of the survey participants came from a variety of provinces, clinical settings, and patient populations. The most common muscle injected for shoulder adduction and internal rotation spasticity was the pectoralis major, this was followed by latissimus dorsi, pectoralis minor, subscapularis and teres major. Injection of BoNT-A for problematic post-stroke shoulder spasticity was common, with (81.48%) of participants responding that it was always or often used in their management of post-stroke spasticity (PSS). Dosing of BoNT-A demonstrated variability for the muscle injected as well as the type of toxin used. The goals of the patients, caregivers, and practitioners were used to help guide the management of these patients. As a result, the practice patterns of Canadian physicians who treat shoulder spasticity are varied, due to numerous patient factors. Future studies are needed to analyze optimal treatment patterns, and the development of algorithms to standardize care.

Spasticity Management Teams, Evaluations, and Tools: A Canadian Cross-Sectional Survey.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study is to determine the physical evaluations and assessment tools used by a group of Canadian healthcare professionals treating adults with spasticity. METHODS: A cross-sectional web-based 19-question survey was developed to determine the types of physical evaluations, tone-related impairment measurements, and assessment tools used in the management of adults with spasticity. The survey was distributed to healthcare professionals from the Canadian Advances in Neuro-Orthopedics for Spasticity Congress database. RESULTS: Eighty study participants (61 physiatrists and 19 other healthcare professionals) completed the survey and were included. Nearly half (46.3%, 37/80) of the participants reported having an inter- or trans-disciplinary team managing individuals with spasticity. Visual observation of movement, available range of motion determination, tone during velocity-dependent passive range of motion looking for a spastic catch, spasticity, and clonus, and evaluation of gait were the most frequently used physical evaluations. The most frequently used spasticity tools were the Modified Ashworth Scale, goniometer, and Goal Attainment Scale. Results were similar in brain- and spinal cord-predominant etiologies. To evaluate goals, qualitative description was used most (37.5%). CONCLUSION: Our findings provide a better understanding of the spasticity management landscape in Canada with respect to staffing, physical evaluations, and outcome measurements used in clinical practice. For all etiologies of spasticity, visual observation of patient movement, Modified Ashworth Scale, and qualitative goal outcomes descriptions were most commonly used to guide treatment and optimize outcomes. Understanding the current practice of spasticity assessment will help provide guidance for clinical evaluation and management of spasticity.

International Recommendations to Manage Poststroke Equinovarus Foot Deformity Validated by a Panel of Experts Using Delphi.

OBJECTIVE: To establish international recommendations for the management of spastic equinovarus foot deformity. DESIGN: Delphi method. SETTING: International study. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 24 international experts (N=24) in neuro-orthopedic deformities, from different specialties (Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine physicians, neurologists, geriatricians, orthopedic surgeons, neurosurgeons, plastic surgeons). INTERVENTIONS: Experts answered 3 rounds of questions related to important aspects of diagnosis, assessment, and treatment of spastic equinovarus foot deformity. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: A consensus was established when at least 80% of experts agreed on a statement RESULTS: A total of 52 items reached consensus. Experts recommend assessing effect of the deformity on functional activities before treatment. Before treatment, it is crucial to differentiate spastic muscle overactivity from soft tissue contractures, identify which muscles are involved in the deformity, and evaluate the activity of antagonist muscles. Motor nerve blocks, 2-dimensional video analysis, and radiologic examinations are often required to complement a clinical examination. The treatment of equinovarus foot depends on the correctability of the deformity and the patient's ability to stand or walk. The preoperative assessment should include an interdisciplinary consultation that must finalize a formal agreement between physicians and the patient, which will define personalized attainable goals before surgery. CONCLUSION: The establishment of guidelines on managing equinovarus foot will help physicians and surgeons, specialists, and nonspecialists to diagnoses and assess the deformity and direct patients to a network of experts to optimize patient functional recovery and improve their autonomy.

Ergonomic Recommendations in Ultrasound-Guided Botulinum Neurotoxin Chemodenervation for Spasticity: An International Expert Group Opinion.

Ultrasound (US)-guided botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) injections are becoming a mainstay in the treatment of muscle spasticity in upper motor neuron syndromes. As a result, there has been a commensurate increase in US-guided BoNT injection for spasticity training courses. However, many of these courses do not emphasize the importance of ergonomics. This paper aims to highlight the importance of ultrasound ergonomics and presents ergonomic recommendations to optimize US-guided BoNT injection techniques in spasticity management. Expert consensus opinion of 11 physicians (4 different continents; representing 8 countries, with an average of 12.6 years of practice using US guidance for BoNT chemodenervation (range 3 to 22 years)). A search using PubMed, College of Physicians and Surgeons of British Columbia database, EMbase was conducted and found no publications relating the importance of ergonomics in US-guided chemodenervation. Therefore, recommendations and consensus discussions were generated from the distribution of a 20-question survey to a panel of 11 ultrasound experts. All 11 surveyed physicians considered ergonomics to be important in reducing physician injury. There was complete agreement that physician positioning was important; 91% agreement that patient positioning was important; and 82% that ultrasound machine positioning was important. Factors that did not reach our 80% threshold for consensus were further discussed. Four categories were identified as being important when implementing ultrasound ergonomics for BoNT chemodenervation for spasticity; workstation, physician, patient and visual ergonomics. Optimizing ergonomics is paramount when performing US-guided BoNT chemodenervation for spasticity management. This includes proper preparation of the workspace and allowing for sufficient pre-injection time to optimally position both the patient and the physician. Lack of awareness of ergonomics for US-guided BoNT chemodenervation for spasticity may lead to suboptimal patient outcomes, increase work-related injuries, and patient discomfort. We propose key elements for optimal positioning of physicians and patients, as well as the optimal setup of the workspace and provide clinical pearls in visual identification of spastic muscles for chemodenervation.

Perioperative Botulinum Toxin Injections to Enhance Surgical Outcomes in Patients With Spasticity: Preoperative, Intraoperative, and Postoperative Case Reports.

Spasticity causes an array of disabilities, which in turn may lead to the need for surgical intervention. Spasticity itself may also negatively affect surgical outcomes. This report reviews the potential benefit of perioperative (before, during, or after surgery) botulinum toxin (BoNT) injections for 3 patients with spasticity due to spinal cord injury, stroke, or multiple sclerosis. We discuss perioperative BoNT in 3 time periods: preoperatively, intraoperatively, and postoperatively. The cases demonstrate the use of perioperative BoNT in decreasing pain, improving wound healing, and improving surgical outcomes. We conclude by discussing the potential use of perioperative BoNT for surgical interventions in patients with spasticity and the need for further high-quality research in this field.

Canadian Physicians' Use of Perioperative Botulinum Toxin Injections to Spastic Limbs: A Cross-sectional National Survey.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the practice patterns of Canadian physicians who use perioperative botulinum toxin (BoNT) injections to improve surgical outcomes on spastic limbs. DESIGN: A cross-sectional national survey composed of an invitation email and an 18-item questionnaire was disseminated by a national physical medicine and rehabilitation (PMR) society to 138 physician members involved in spasticity management. SETTING: Not applicable. PARTICIPANTS: Twenty-five percent of the participants (N=34) fully completed the survey. INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Participants completed an online questionnaire that examined the practice patterns and surgical outcomes associated with perioperative BoNT injections. RESULTS: The majority (n=21; 84%) of Canadian physicians who inject BoNT perioperatively to improve outcomes of surgeries performed on spastic limbs are specialists in PMR practicing in academic settings. Most respondents (74%) used BoNT injections for perioperative treatment for patients with limb spasticity undergoing surgery. Of those surveyed, 65% of physicians used BoNT preoperatively, 21% used BoNT intraoperatively, and 24% used BoNT postoperatively.Of the physicians who performed BoNT injections preoperatively, 6% performed BoNT injections 7 to 12 weeks preoperatively, 32% performed BoNT injections 4 to 6 weeks preoperatively, 47% performed BoNT injections 2 to 3 weeks preoperatively, and 15% performed BoNT injections 0 to 1 week preoperatively. The majority of physicians (85%) responded that injecting BoNT perioperatively may improve a patient's surgical outcome and all of the participants (100%) stated that BoNT did not contribute to any perioperative complications or adverse effects. Qualitative responses emphasized that successful outcomes from the perioperative BoNT were linked to enhanced collaboration with surgeons and that more research is needed to determine the optimal timing of perioperative BoNT. CONCLUSION: Canadian physicians, mostly PMR specialists, administer perioperative BoNT to improve outcomes of surgeries performed on spastic limbs. The optimal timing for perioperative BoNT was suggested to be 2 to 3 weeks before the surgery by 47% of survey respondents. All participating physicians responded that perioperative BoNT did not contribute to any known perioperative complications or adverse events. This study highlights the importance of conducting more robust research to better understand optimal timing for perioperative BoNT injection, enhancing collaboration between physicians and surgeons, and increasing awareness of perioperative BoNT when planning for surgeries on spastic limbs.

A practical guide to optimizing the benefits of post-stroke spasticity interventions with botulinum toxin A: An international group consensus.

This consensus paper is derived from a meeting of an international group of 19 neurological rehabilitation specialists with a combined experience of more than 250 years (range 4-25 years; mean 14.1 years) in treating post-stroke spasticity with botulinum toxin A. The group undertook critical assessments of some recurring practical challenges, not yet addressed in guidelines, through an exten-sive literature search. They then discussed the results in the light of their individual clinical experience and developed consensus statements to present to the wider community who treat such patients. The analysis provides a comprehensive overview of treatment with botulinum toxin A, including the use of adjunctive therapies, within a multidisciplinary context, and is aimed at practicing clinicians who treat patients with post-stroke spasticity and require further practical guidance on the use of botulinum toxin A. This paper does not replicate information published elsewhere, but instead aims to provide practical advice to help optimize the use of botulinum toxin A and maximize clinical outcomes. The recommendations for each topic are summarized in a series of statements. Where published high-quality evidence exists, the recommendations reflect this. However, where evidence is not yet conclusive, the group members issued statements and, in some cas-es, made recommendations based on their clinical experience.

Peri-operative Botulinum Neurotoxin injection to improve outcomes of surgeries on spastic limbs: A systematic review.

Our objective was to systematically review literature regarding the rationale and current evidence for peri-operative Botulinum Neurotoxin (BoNT) injection to improve outcomes of surgeries on spastic limbs. We conducted a systematic search of databases MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled until March 2020, using the PRISMA guidelines. After assessing all titles and abstracts against inclusion criteria, full texts were reviewed for studies of potential interest. The inclusion criteria were studies on humans with any study design, published in all languages. Participants had to have underlying limb spasticity and be scheduled to undergo surgery on one or more spastic limb(s). BoNT had to be administered peri-operatively to improve surgical outcomes and not solely for the purpose of alleviating spasticity. The risk of bias was evaluated using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scoring system for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and the Downs and Black tool for RCTs and non-randomized trials. Further, the level of evidence was evaluated using a five-level scale (simplified form of Sackett). Five studies met our inclusion criteria comprising a total of 90 participants, of both pediatric and adult age groups, with underlying limb spasticity, who received BoNT perioperatively to improve outcomes of the surgeries performed on spastic limbs. Interventions were intramuscular BoNT injection prior to, at the time of, or after surgery on a spastic limb for the purpose of improving surgical outcomes, and not solely for alleviating muscle spasticity. Outcome measures were surgical success/failure, post-operative pain and analgesic use, sleep quality, adverse events, spasticity control e.g. Modified Ashworth Scale. Our literature search yielded 5 articles that met the inclusion criteria. Current evidence supports peri-operative injection of BoNT to improve outcomes of surgeries performed on spastic limbs. There is level 1 evidence that BoNT administered pre-operatively is effective for reducing pain, spasticity, and analgesic use in pediatric patients with cerebral palsy (CP). This is supported by level 4 evidence from a retrospective case series. Level 5 evidence from case reports highlights the potential for the use of BONT in the peri-operative period. There is level 1 evidence that BoNT administered intra-operatively is not effective for reducing pain and analgesic use in pediatric patients with CP. This lack of benefit may reflect sub-optimal timing of injections, different methods of injection, different timing of the primary outcome measure, and/or differences in adjunctive therapies, but further research is required.

Effect of treating elbow flexor spasticity with botulinum toxin injection and adjunctive casting on hemiparetic gait parameters: A prospective case series.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate changes in hemiparetic gait parameters after treatment of elbow flexor spasticity with botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) injection and adjunctive casting. DESIGN: Prospective case series. SUBJECTS: Ten participants with spasticity secondary to acquired brain injury (8 stroke, 2 traumatic brain injury). INTERVENTIONS: Participants received BoNT injections for their spastic elbow flexors under ultrasound guid-ance. Two weeks post-injection, an elbow stretching cast was applied for 1 week. OUTCOME MEASURES: Assessments using the Modified Ashworth Scale (MAS), Tardieu scale V1 angle of arrest at slow speed and V3 angle of catch at fast speed, 2-min walk test (2MWT), Edinburgh Gait Score scale (EGS) and video gait analysis for step-length symmetry were conducted pre-BoNT injection (t0) and at cast removal (t1). Goal attainment scale (GAS) was used to assess changes in spasticity and gait 3 months post-injection (t2). RESULTS: At t1, participants showed a mean increase of 16.7° (p < 0.01) on the Tardieu Scale V3 and a mean reduction of 0.5 points on the MAS (p < 0.05). There was also a mean reduction on EGS of 2.7 points (p < 0.05), and a mean increase on 2MWT of 3.1 m (p < 0.05). On the GAS, all participants report-ed impro-ved gait at t2 and 80% reported a decrease in spasticity. CONCLUSION: Combining BoNT injection with casting for treatment of elbow flexor spasticity without treat-ing the lower limb may improve hemiparetic gait parameters.

Spasticity Outpatient Evaluation via Telemedicine: A Practical Framework.

The COVID-19 global pandemic has resulted in significant changes to delivery of care in the field of physiatry. Most prominently, in-person visits have fast tracked to virtual visits. As we are forced to quickly adopt this new technology for our doctor-patient interactions, many questions remain with regard to structuring telemedicine visits for optimal outcomes. Little has been written on virtual evaluations of patients with spasticity. The intent of this article was to provide a framework for conducting a virtual spasticity assessment via telemedicine. We will provide tips on how to conduct a person-centered virtual examination assessment and how to document goals related to the virtual assessment.

COVID-19 pandemic. What should Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine specialists do? A clinician's perspective.

COVID-19 pandemic is rapidly spreading all over the world, creating the risk for a healthcare collapse. While acute care and intensive care units are the main pillars of the early response to the disease, rehabilitative medicine should play an important part in allowing COVID-19 survivors to reduce disability and optimize the function of acute hospital setting. The aim of this study was to share the experience and the international perspective of different rehabilitation centers, treating COVID-19 survivors. A group of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation specialists from eleven different countries in Europe and North America have shared their clinical experience in dealing with COVID-19 survivors and how they have managed the re-organization of rehabilitation services. In our experience the most important sequelae of severe and critical forms of COVID-19 are: 1) respiratory; 2) cognitive, central and peripheral nervous system; 3) deconditioning; 4) critical illness related myopathy and neuropathy; 5) dysphagia; 6) joint stiffness and pain; 7) psychiatric. We analyze all these consequences and propose some practical treatment options, based on current evidence and clinical experience, as well as several suggestions for management of rehabilitation services and patients with suspected or confirmed infection by SARS-CoV-2. COVID-19 survivors have some specific rehabilitation needs. Experience from other centers may help colleagues in organizing their services and providing better care to their patients.