Convergent Deboronative and Decarboxylative Phosphonylation Enabled by the Phosphite Radical Trap "BecaP".

Carbon-phosphorus bond formation is significant in synthetic chemistry because phosphorus-containing compounds offer numerous indispensable biochemical roles. While there is a plethora of methods to access organophosphorus compounds, phosphonylations of readily accessible alkyl radicals to form aliphatic phosphonates are rare and not commonly used in synthesis. Herein, we introduce a novel phosphorus radical trap "BecaP" that enables facile and efficient phosphonylation of alkyl radicals under visible light photocatalytic conditions. Importantly, the ambiphilic nature of BecaP allows redox neutral reactions with both nucleophilic (activated by single-electron oxidation) and electrophilic (activated by single-electron reduction) alkyl radical precursors. Thus, a broad scope of feedstock alkyl potassium trifluoroborate salts and redox active carboxylate esters could be employed, with each class of substrate proceeding through a distinct mechanistic pathway. The mild conditions are applicable to the late-stage installation of phosphonate motifs into medicinal agents and natural products, which is showcased by the straightforward conversion of baclofen (muscle relaxant) to phaclofen (GABAB antagonist).

Dynamic crosslinking compatibilizes immiscible mixed plastics.

The global plastics problem is a trifecta, greatly affecting environment, energy and climate1-4. Many innovative closed/open-loop plastics recycling or upcycling strategies have been proposed or developed5-16, addressing various aspects of the issues underpinning the achievement of a circular economy17-19. In this context, reusing mixed-plastics waste presents a particular challenge with no current effective closed-loop solution20. This is because such mixed plastics, especially polar/apolar polymer mixtures, are typically incompatible and phase separate, leading to materials with substantially inferior properties. To address this key barrier, here we introduce a new compatibilization strategy that installs dynamic crosslinkers into several classes of binary, ternary and postconsumer immiscible polymer mixtures in situ. Our combined experimental and modelling studies show that specifically designed classes of dynamic crosslinker can reactivate mixed-plastics chains, represented here by apolar polyolefins and polar polyesters, by compatibilizing them via dynamic formation of graft multiblock copolymers. The resulting in-situ-generated dynamic thermosets exhibit intrinsic reprocessability and enhanced tensile strength and creep resistance relative to virgin plastics. This approach avoids the need for de/reconstruction and thus potentially provides an alternative, facile route towards the recovery of the endowed energy and materials value of individual plastics.

Facile Conversion of α-Amino Acids into α-Amino Phosphonates by Decarboxylative Phosphorylation using Visible-Light Photocatalysis.

Amino phosphonates exhibit potent inhibitory activity for a wide range of biological processes due to their specific structural and electronic properties, making them important in a plethora of applications, including as enzyme inhibitors, herbicides, antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal agents. While the traditional synthesis of α-amino phosphonates has relied on the multicomponent Kabachnik-Fields reaction, we herein describe a novel and facile conversion of activated derivatives of α-amino acids directly to their respective α-amino phosphonate counterparts via a decarboxylative radical-polar crossover process enabled by the use of visible-light organophotocatalysis. The novel method shows broad applicability across a range of natural and synthetic amino acids, operates under mild conditions, and has been demonstrated to successfully achieve the late-stage functionalization of drug molecules.

Rapid Syntheses of (-)-FR901483 and (+)-TAN1251C Enabled by Complexity-Generating Photocatalytic Olefin Hydroaminoalkylation.

We report a common strategy to facilitate the syntheses of the polycyclic alkaloids (-)-FR901483 (1) and (+)-TAN1251C (2). A divergent synthetic strategy provides access to both natural products through a pivotal spirolactam intermediate (3), which can be accessed on a gram-scale. A photocatalytic olefin hydroaminoalkylation brings together three readily available building blocks and forges the majority of the carbon framework present in 1 and 2 in a single operation, leading to concise total syntheses. The complexity-generating photocatalytic process also provides direct access to novel non-racemic spirolactam scaffolds that are likely to be of interest to early-stage drug discovery programs.

Multicomponent synthesis of tertiary alkylamines by photocatalytic olefin-hydroaminoalkylation.

There is evidence to suggest that increasing the level of saturation (that is, the number of sp3-hybridized carbon atoms) of small molecules can increase their likelihood of success in the drug discovery pipeline1. Owing to their favourable physical properties, alkylamines have become ubiquitous among pharmaceutical agents, small-molecule biological probes and pre-clinical candidates2. Despite their importance, the synthesis of amines is still dominated by two methods: N-alkylation and carbonyl reductive amination3. Therefore, the increasing demand for saturated polar molecules in drug discovery has continued to drive the development of practical catalytic methods for the synthesis of complex alkylamines4-7. In particular, processes that transform accessible feedstocks into sp3-rich architectures provide a strategic advantage in the synthesis of complex alkylamines. Here we report a multicomponent, reductive photocatalytic technology that combines readily available dialkylamines, carbonyls and alkenes to build architecturally complex and functionally diverse tertiary alkylamines in a single step. This olefin-hydroaminoalkylation process involves a visible-light-mediated reduction of in-situ-generated iminium ions to selectively furnish previously inaccessible alkyl-substituted α-amino radicals, which subsequently react with alkenes to form C(sp3)-C(sp3) bonds. The operationally straightforward reaction exhibits broad functional-group tolerance, facilitates the synthesis of drug-like amines that are not readily accessible by other methods and is amenable to late-stage functionalization applications, making it of interest in areas such as pharmaceutical and agrochemical research.

Molar Activity of Ga-68 Labeled PSMA Inhibitor Conjugates Determines PET Imaging Results.

Radiopharmaceuticals targeting the enzyme prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA; synonyms: glutamate carboxypeptidase II, NAALADase; EC 3.4.17.21) have recently emerged as powerful agents for diagnosis and therapy (theranostics) of prostate carcinoma (PCa). The radiation doses for therapeutic application of such compounds are limited by substantial uptakes in kidneys and salivary glands, with excess doses reportedly leading to radiotoxicity-related adverse effects, such as kidney insufficiency or xenostomia. On the basis of the triazacyclononane-triphosphinate (TRAP) chelator, monomeric to trimeric conjugates of the PSMA inhibitor motif lysine-urea-glutamic acid (KuE) were synthesized by means of Cu(I)-mediated (CuAAC) or 5-aza-dibenzocyclooctyne (DBCO)-driven, strain-promoted click chemistry (SPAAC), which were labeled with gallium-68 for application in positron emission tomography (PET), and characterized in terms of PSMA affinity (determined in cellular displacement assays against I-125-BA) and lipophilicity (expressed as log D). Using subcutaneous murine LNCaP (PSMA-positive human prostate carcinoma) xenografts, the influence of ligand multiplicity, affinity, polarity, and molar activity (i.e., mass dose) on the uptakes in tumor, kidney, salivary, and background (muscle) was analyzed by means of region-of-interest (ROI) based quantification of small-animal PET imaging data. As expected, trimerization of the KuE motif resulted in high PSMA affinities (IC50 ranging from 6.0-1.5 nM). Of all parameters, molar activity/cold mass had the most pronounced influence on PET uptakes. Because accumulation in nontumor tissues was effected to a larger extent than tumor uptakes, lower molar activities resulted in substantially better tumor-to-organ ratios. For example, for one trimer, 68Ga-AhxKuE3 (IC50 = 1.5 ± 0.3 nM, log D = -3.8 ± 0.1), a higher overall amount of active compound (12 pmol vs 2 nmol, equivalent to molar activities of 1200 and 8 MBq/nmol) resulted in a remarkable reduction of the kidney-to-tumor ratio from 11.4 to 1.4, respectively, at 60 min p.i. Our study suggests that, for PSMA-targeting radiopharmaceuticals, molar activity has a more pronounced influence on small-animal PET imaging results than structural or in vitro parameters.

N-Methylation of isoDGR Peptides: Discovery of a Selective α5ß1-Integrin Ligand as a Potent Tumor Imaging Agent.

Specific targeting of the integrin subtype α5ß1 possesses high potential in cancer diagnosis and therapy. Through sequential N-methylation, we successfully converted the biselective α5ß1/αvß6 peptide c(phg- isoDGR-k) into a potent peptidic RGD binding α5ß1 subtype selective ligand c(phg- isoDGR-( NMe)k). Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and molecular modeling clarified the molecular basis of its improved selectivity profile. To demonstrate its potential in vivo, c(phg- isoDGR-( NMe)k) was trimerized with the chelator TRAP and used as a positron-emission tomography tracer for monitoring α5ß1 integrin expression in a M21 mouse xenograft.

Theranostic Value of Multimers: Lessons Learned from Trimerization of Neurotensin Receptor Ligands and Other Targeting Vectors.

Neurotensin receptor 1 (NTS1) is overexpressed on a variety of cancer entities; for example, prostate cancer, ductal pancreatic adenocarcinoma, and breast cancer. Therefore, it represents an interesting target for the diagnosis of these cancers types by positron emission tomography (PET) [...].

Dendritic poly-chelator frameworks for multimeric bioconjugation.

Starting from multifunctional triazacyclononane-triphosphinate chelator cores, dendritic molecules with the ability to bind metal ions within their framework were synthesized. A cooperative interaction of the chelator cages resulted in a markedly increased affinity towards 67/68GaIII. A hexameric PSMA inhibitor conjugate with high affinity (IC50 = 1.2 nM) and favorable in vivo PET imaging properties demonstrated practical applicability. The novel scaffolds are useful for synthesis of structurally well-defined multimodal imaging probes or theranostics.

In Vivo PET Imaging of the Cancer Integrin αvß6 Using 68Ga-Labeled Cyclic RGD Nonapeptides.

Expression of the cellular transmembrane receptor αvß6 integrin is essentially restricted to malignant epithelial cells in carcinomas of a broad variety of lineages, whereas it is virtually absent in normal adult tissues. Thus, it is a highly attractive target for tumor imaging and therapy. Furthermore, αvß6 integrin plays an important role for the epithelial-mesenchymal interaction and the development of fibrosis. Methods: On the basis of the 68Ga chelators TRAP (triazacyclononane-triphosphinate) and NODAGA, we synthesized mono-, di-, and trimeric conjugates of the αvß6 integrin-selective peptide cyclo(FRGDLAFp(NMe)K) via click chemistry. These were labeled with 68Ga and screened regarding their suitability for in vivo imaging of αvß6 integrin expression by PET and ex vivo biodistribution in severe combined immunodeficiency mice bearing H2009 tumor (human lung adenocarcinoma) xenografts. For these, αvß6 integrin expression in tumor and other tissues was determined by ß6 immunohistochemistry. Results: Despite the multimers showing higher αvß6 integrin affinities (23-120 pM) than the monomers (260 pM), the best results-that is, low background uptake and excellent tumor delineation-were obtained with the TRAP-based monomer 68Ga-avebehexin. This compound showed the most favorable pharmacokinetics because of its high polarity (log D = -3.7) and presence of additional negative charges (carboxylates) on the chelator, promoting renal clearance. Although tumor uptake was low (0.65% ± 0.04% injected dose per gram tissue [%ID/g]), it was still higher than in all other organs except the kidneys, ranging from a maximum for the stomach (0.52 ± 0.04 %ID/g) to almost negligible for the pancreas (0.07 ± 0.01 %ID/g). A low but significant target expression in tumor, lung, and stomach was confirmed by immunohistochemistry. Conclusion: Because of highly sensitive PET imaging even of tissues with low αvß6 integrin expression density, we anticipate clinical applicability of 68Ga-avebehexin for imaging of αvß6 tumors and fibrosis by PET.

Variation of Specific Activities of 68Ga-Aquibeprin and 68Ga-Avebetrin Enables Selective PET Imaging of Different Expression Levels of Integrins α5ß1 and αvß3.

68Ga-aquibeprin and 68Ga-avebetrin are tracers for selective in vivo mapping of integrins α5ß1 and αvß3, respectively, by PET. Because both tracers exhibit high affinity to their respective targets, the aim of this study was to investigate the influence of the specific activity of preparations of both tracers on in vivo imaging results. METHODS: Fully automated 68Ga labeling of 0.3 nmol of aquibeprin or avebetrin was done using buffered eluate fractions (600-800 MBq, pH 2) of an SnO2-based generator, affording the radiopharmaceuticals with specific activities greater than 1,000 MBq/nmol. Lower values ranging from 150 to 0.4 MBq/nmol were adjusted by addition of inactive compound (∼0.15-50 nmol) to the injected activity (∼20 MBq for PET, 5-7 MBq for biodistribution). For in vivo experiments, 6- to 12-wk-old female severe combined immunodeficiency mice bearing M21 xenografts (human melanoma, expressing both integrins α5ß1 and αvß3) were used. The expression density of integrin ß3 was determined by immunohistochemistry on paraffin slices. RESULTS: For mass doses (specific activities) of less than 20 pmol (>1,000 MBq/nmol) and 1 nmol (20 MBq/nmol) per mouse, respectively, uptake of 68Ga-aquibeprin and 68Ga-avebetrin in M21 tumors dropped from 5.3 and 3.5 to 3.0 and 2.4 percentage injected dose per gram (%ID/g), respectively. When less than 20 pmol was applied, high uptake of 68Ga-aquibeprin in the eyes (4.5 %ID/g) or 68Ga-avebetrin in adrenals (25.9 %ID/g), respectively, were found, which was reduced by 90% and 65% (0.44 and 6.2 %ID/g, respectively), for doses of 1 nmol. The highest tumor-to-tissue ratios were observed both in ex vivo biodistribution and PET for comparably large doses, for example, 6 nmol (0.65 mg/kg) 68Ga-aquibeprin per mouse (3.5 MBq/nmol). CONCLUSION: Presumably because of their high affinities, 68Ga-aquibeprin and 68Ga-avebetrin allow for selective addressing of target sites with different integrin expression levels by virtue of adjusting specific activity, which can be exploited for visualization of low-level target expression or optimization of tumor-to-background contrast.

Complementary, Selective PET Imaging of Integrin Subtypes α5ß1 and αvß3 Using 68Ga-Aquibeprin and 68Ga-Avebetrin.

UNLABELLED: Despite in vivo mapping of integrin αvß3 expression being thoroughly investigated in recent years, its clinical value is still not well defined. For imaging of angiogenesis, the integrin subtype α5ß1 appears to be a promising target, for which purpose we designed the PET radiopharmaceutical (68)Ga-aquibeprin. METHODS: (68)Ga-aquibeprin was obtained by click-chemistry (CuAAC) trimerization of a α5ß1 integrin-binding pseudopeptide on the triazacyclononane-triphosphinate (TRAP) chelator, followed by automated (68)Ga labeling. Integrin α5ß1 and αvß3 affinities were determined in enzyme linked immune sorbent assay on immobilized integrins, using fibronectin and vitronectin, respectively, as competitors. M21 (human melanoma)-bearing severe combined immunodeficient mice were used for biodistribution, PET imaging, and determination of in vivo metabolization. The expression of α5 and ß3 subunits was determined by immunohistochemistry on paraffin sections of M21 tumors. RESULTS: (68)Ga-aquibeprin shows high selectivity for integrin α5ß1 (50% inhibition concentration [IC50] = 0.088 nM) over αvß3 (IC50 = 620 nM) and a pronounced hydrophilicity (log D = -4.2). Severe combined immunodeficient mice xenografted with M21 human melanoma were found suitable for in vivo evaluation, as M21 immunohistochemistry showed not only an endothelial and strong cytoplasmatic expression of the ß3 integrin subunit but also an intense expression of the α5 integrin subunit particularly in the endothelial cells of intratumoral small vessels. Ex vivo biodistribution (90 min after injection) showed high uptake in M21 tumor (2.42 ± 0.21 percentage injected dose per gram), fast renal excretion, and low background; tumor-to-blood and tumor-to-muscle ratios were 10.6 ± 2.5 and 20.9 ± 2.4, respectively. (68)Ga-aquibeprin is stable in vivo; no metabolites were detected in mouse urine, blood serum, kidney, and liver homogenates 30 min after injection. PET imaging was performed for (68)Ga-aquibeprin and the previously described, structurally related c(RGDfK) trimer (68)Ga-avebetrin, which shows an inverse selectivity for integrin αvß3 (IC50 = 0.22 nM) over α5ß1 (IC50 = 39 nM). In vivo target specificity was proven by cross-competition studies; tumor uptake of either tracer was not affected by the coadministration of 40 nmol (∼5 mg/kg) of the respective other compound. CONCLUSION: (68)Ga-aquibeprin and (68)Ga-avebetrin are recommendable for complementary mapping of integrins α5ß1 and αvß3 by PET, allowing for future studies on the role of these integrins in angiogenesis, tumor progression, metastasis, and myocardial infarct healing.

A shortcut to high-affinity Ga-68 and Cu-64 radiopharmaceuticals: one-pot click chemistry trimerisation on the TRAP platform.

Due to its 3 carbonic acid groups being available for bioconjugation, the TRAP chelator (1,4,7-triazacyclononane-1,4,7-tris(methylene(2-carboxyethylphosphinic acid))) is chosen for the synthesis of trimeric bioconjugates for radiolabelling. We optimized a protocol for bio-orthogonal TRAP conjugation via Cu(I)-catalyzed Huisgen-cycloaddition of terminal azides and alkynes (CuAAC), including a detailed investigation of kinetic properties of Cu(II)-TRAP complexes. TRAP building blocks for CuAAC, TRAP(alkyne)3 and TRAP(azide)3 were obtained by amide coupling of propargylamine/3-azidopropyl-1-amine, respectively. For Cu(II) complexes of neat and triply amide-functionalized TRAP, the equilibrium properties as well as pseudo-first-order Cu(II)-transchelation, using 10 to 30 eq. of NOTA and EDTA, were studied by UV-spectrophotometry. Dissociation of any Cu(II)-TRAP species was found to be independent on the nature or excess of a competing chelator, confirming a proton-driven two-step mechanism. The respective thermodynamic stability constants (log K(ML): 19.1 and 17.6) and dissociation rates (k: 38 × 10(-6) and 7 × 10(-6) s(-1), 298 K, pH 4) show that the Cu(II) complex of the TRAP-conjugate possesses lower thermodynamic stability but higher kinetic inertness. At pH 2-3, its demetallation with NOTA was complete within several hours/days at room temperature, respectively, enabling facile Cu(II) removal after click coupling by direct addition of NOTA trihydrochloride to the CuAAC reaction mixture. Notwithstanding this, an extrapolated dissociation half life of >100 h at 37 °C and pH 7 confirms the suitability of TRAP-bioconjugates for application in Cu-64 PET (cf. t(1/2)(Cu-64) = 12.7 h). To showcase advantages of the method, TRAP(DUPA-Pep)3, a trimer of the PSMA inhibitor DUPA-Pep, was synthesized using 1 eq. TRAP(alkyne)3, 3.3 eq. DUPA-Pep-azide, 10 eq. Na ascorbate, and 1.2 eq. Cu(II)-acetate. Its PSMA affinity (IC50), determined by the competition assay on LNCaP cells, was 18-times higher than that of the corresponding DOTAGA monomer (IC50: 2 ± 0.1 vs. 36 ± 4 nM), resulting in markedly improved contrast in Ga-68-PET imaging. In conclusion, the kinetic inertness profile of Cu(II)-TRAP conjugates allows for simple Cu(II) removal after click functionalisation by means of transchelation, but also confirms their suitability for Cu-64-PET as demonstrated previously (Dalton Trans., 2012, 41, 13803).