Silencing of the Hsp70-specific nucleotide-exchange factor BAG3 corrects the F508del-CFTR variant by restoring autophagy.

The protein chaperones heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) and Hsp90 are required for de novo folding of proteins and protect against misfolding-related cellular stresses by directing misfolded or slowly folding proteins to the ubiquitin/proteasome system (UPS) or autophagy/lysosomal degradation pathways. Here, we examined the role of the Bcl2-associated athanogene (BAG) family of Hsp70-specific nucleotide-exchange factors in the biogenesis and functional correction of genetic variants of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) whose mutations cause cystic fibrosis (CF). We show that siRNA-mediated silencing of BAG1 and -3, two BAG members linked to the clearance of misfolded proteins via the UPS and autophagy pathways, respectively, leads to functional correction of F508del-CFTR and other disease-associated CFTR variants. BAG3 silencing was the most effective, leading to improved F508del-CFTR stability, trafficking, and restoration of cell-surface function, both alone and in combination with the FDA-approved CFTR corrector, VX-809. We also found that the BAG3 silencing-mediated correction of F508del-CFTR restores the autophagy pathway, which is defective in F508del-CFTR-expressing cells, likely because of the maladaptive stress response in CF pathophysiology. These results highlight the potential therapeutic benefits of targeting the cellular chaperone system to improve the functional folding of CFTR variants contributing to CF and possibly other protein-misfolding-associated diseases.

Correcting the F508del-CFTR variant by modulating eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3-mediated translation initiation.

Inherited and somatic rare diseases result from >200,000 genetic variants leading to loss- or gain-of-toxic function, often caused by protein misfolding. Many of these misfolded variants fail to properly interact with other proteins. Understanding the link between factors mediating the transcription, translation, and protein folding of these disease-associated variants remains a major challenge in cell biology. Herein, we utilized the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein as a model and performed a proteomics-based high-throughput screen (HTS) to identify pathways and components affecting the folding and function of the most common cystic fibrosis-associated mutation, the F508del variant of CFTR. Using a shortest-path algorithm we developed, we mapped HTS hits to the CFTR interactome to provide functional context to the targets and identified the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3a (eIF3a) as a central hub for the biogenesis of CFTR. Of note, siRNA-mediated silencing of eIF3a reduced the polysome-to-monosome ratio in F508del-expressing cells, which, in turn, decreased the translation of CFTR variants, leading to increased CFTR stability, trafficking, and function at the cell surface. This finding suggested that eIF3a is involved in mediating the impact of genetic variations in CFTR on the folding of this protein. We posit that the number of ribosomes on a CFTR mRNA transcript is inversely correlated with the stability of the translated polypeptide. Polysome-based translation challenges the capacity of the proteostasis environment to balance message fidelity with protein folding, leading to disease. We suggest that this deficit can be corrected through control of translation initiation.

Using Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors to Analyze the Relevance of HDACs for Translation.

Gene expression is regulated in part through the reversible acetylation of histones, by the action of histone acetyltransferases (HAT) and histone deacetylases (HDAC). HAT activity results in the addition of acetyl groups on the lysine residues of histone tails leading to decondensation of the chromatin, and increased gene transcription in general, whereas HDACs remove these acetyl groups, thus leading to an overall suppression of gene transcription. Recent evidence has elucidated that histones are not the only components of the proteome that are targeted by HATs and HDACs. A large number of nonhistone proteins undergo posttranslational acetylation. They include proteins involved in mRNA stability, protein localization and degradation, as well as protein-protein and protein-DNA interactions. In recent years, numerous studies have discovered increased HDAC expression and/or activity in numerous disease states, including cancer, where the upregulation of HDAC family members leads to dysregulation of genes and proteins involved in cell proliferation, cell cycle regulation, and apoptosis. These observations have pushed HDAC inhibitors (HDACi) to the forefront of therapeutic development of oncological conditions. HDACi, such as Vorinostat (Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA)), affect cancer cells in part by suppressing the translation of key proteins linked to tumorigenesis, such as cyclin D1 and hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF-1α). Herein we describe methodologies to analyze the impact of the HDACi Vorinostat on HIF-1α translational regulation and downstream effectors.

Modulation of the maladaptive stress response to manage diseases of protein folding.

Diseases of protein folding arise because of the inability of an altered peptide sequence to properly engage protein homeostasis components that direct protein folding and function. To identify global principles of misfolding disease pathology we examined the impact of the local folding environment in alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency (AATD), Niemann-Pick type C1 disease (NPC1), Alzheimer's disease (AD), and cystic fibrosis (CF). Using distinct models, including patient-derived cell lines and primary epithelium, mouse brain tissue, and Caenorhabditis elegans, we found that chronic expression of misfolded proteins not only triggers the sustained activation of the heat shock response (HSR) pathway, but that this sustained activation is maladaptive. In diseased cells, maladaptation alters protein structure-function relationships, impacts protein folding in the cytosol, and further exacerbates the disease state. We show that down-regulation of this maladaptive stress response (MSR), through silencing of HSF1, the master regulator of the HSR, restores cellular protein folding and improves the disease phenotype. We propose that restoration of a more physiological proteostatic environment will strongly impact the management and progression of loss-of-function and gain-of-toxic-function phenotypes common in human disease.

The histone deacetylase inhibitor, Vorinostat, represses hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha expression through translational inhibition.

Hypoxia inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) is a master regulator of tumor angiogenesis being one of the major targets for cancer therapy. Previous studies have shown that Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors (HDACi) block tumor angiogenesis through the inhibition of HIF-1α expression. As such, Vorinostat (Suberoylanilide Hydroxamic Acid/SAHA) and Romidepsin, two HDACis, were recently approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of cutaneous T cell lymphoma. Although HDACis have been shown to affect HIF-1α expression by modulating its interactions with the Hsp70/Hsp90 chaperone axis or its acetylation status, the molecular mechanisms by which HDACis inhibit HIF-1α expression need to be further characterized. Here, we report that the FDA-approved HDACi Vorinostat/SAHA inhibits HIF-1α expression in liver cancer-derived cell lines, by a new mechanism independent of p53, prolyl-hydroxylases, autophagy and proteasome degradation. We found that SAHA or silencing of HDAC9 mechanism of action is due to inhibition of HIF-1α translation, which in turn, is mediated by the eukaryotic translation initiation factor--eIF3G. We also highlighted that HIF-1α translation is dramatically inhibited when SAHA is combined with eIF3H silencing. Taken together, we show that HDAC activity regulates HIF-1α translation, with HDACis such as SAHA representing a potential novel approach for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma.

Q-bodies monitor the quinary state of the protein fold.

Cytoplasmic compartments containing misfolded proteins targeted for degradation, named Q-bodies, have been identified. Q-body formation is a dynamic process that actively manages the metastable state of the protein fold through small heat shock proteins and the Hsp70-Hsp90-Hsp110 proteostasis system to promote cellular fitness under both physiological and stress conditions.

FK506 binding protein 8 peptidylprolyl isomerase activity manages a late stage of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) folding and stability.

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is caused by mutations in the apical chloride channel cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) with 90% of patients carrying at least one deletion of the F508 (ΔF508) allele. This mutant form of CFTR is characterized by a folding and trafficking defect that prevents exit from the endoplasmic reticulum. We previously reported that ΔF508 CFTR can be recovered in a complex with Hsp90 and its co-chaperones as an on-pathway folding intermediate, suggesting that Δ508 CF disease arises due to a failure of the proteostasis network (PN), which manages protein folding and degradation in the cell. We have now examined the role of FK506-binding protein 8 (FKBP8), a component of the CFTR interactome, during the biogenesis of wild-type and ΔF508 CFTR. FKBP8 is a member of the peptidylprolyl isomerase family that mediates the cis/trans interconversion of peptidyl prolyl bonds. Our results suggest that FKBP8 is a key PN factor required at a post-Hsp90 step in CFTR biogenesis. In addition, changes in its expression level or alteration of its activity by a peptidylprolyl isomerase inhibitor alter CFTR stability and transport. We propose that CF is caused by the sequential failure of the prevailing PN pathway to stabilize ΔF508-CFTR for endoplasmic reticulum export, a pathway that can be therapeutically managed.

Mechanism of microtubule-facilitated "fast track" nuclear import.

Although the microtubule (MT) cytoskeleton has been shown to facilitate nuclear import of specific cancer-regulatory proteins including p53, retinoblastoma protein, and parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP), the MT association sequences (MTASs) responsible and the nature of the interplay between MT-dependent and conventional importin (IMP)-dependent nuclear translocation are unknown. Here we used site-directed mutagenesis, live cell imaging, and direct IMP and MT binding assays to map the MTAS of PTHrP for the first time, finding that it is within a short modular region (residues 82-108) that overlaps with the IMPß1-recognized nuclear localization signal (residues 66-108) of PTHrP. Importantly, fluorescence recovery after photobleaching experiments indicated that disruption of the MT network or mutation of the MTAS of PTHrP decreases the rate of nuclear import by 2-fold. Moreover, MTAS functions depend on mutual exclusivity of binding of PTHrP to MTs and IMPß1 such that, following MT-dependent trafficking toward the nucleus, perinuclear PTHrP can be displaced from MTs by IMPß1 prior to import into the nucleus. This is the first molecular definition of an MTAS that facilitates protein nuclear import as well as the first delineation of the mechanism whereby cargo is transferred directly from the cytoskeleton to the cellular nuclear import apparatus. The results have broad significance with respect to fundamental processes regulating cell physiology/transformation.

The flexible loop of the human cytomegalovirus DNA polymerase processivity factor ppUL44 is required for efficient DNA binding and replication in cells.

Phosphoprotein ppUL44 of the human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) DNA polymerase plays an essential role in viral replication, conferring processivity to the DNA polymerase catalytic subunit pUL54 by tethering it to the DNA. Here, for the first time, we examine in living cells the function of the highly flexible loop of ppUL44 (UL44-FL; residues 162 to 174 [PHTRVKRNVKKAP(174)]), which has been proposed to be directly involved in ppUL44's interaction with DNA. In particular, we use a variety of approaches in transfected cells to characterize in detail the behavior of ppUL44Deltaloop, a mutant derivative in which three of the five basic residues within UL44-FL are replaced by nonbasic amino acids. Our results indicate that ppUL44Deltaloop is functional in dimerization and binding to pUL54 but strongly impaired in binding nuclear structures within the nucleus, as shown by its inability to form nuclear speckles, reduced nuclear accumulation, and increased intranuclear mobility compared to wild-type ppUL44. Moreover, analysis of cellular fractions after detergent and DNase treatment indicates that ppUL44Deltaloop is strongly reduced in DNA-binding ability, in similar fashion to ppUL44-L86A/L87A, a point mutant derivative impaired in dimerization. Finally, ppUL44Deltaloop fails to transcomplement HCMV oriLyt-dependent DNA replication in cells and also inhibits replication in the presence of wild-type ppUL44, possibly via formation of heterodimers defective for double-stranded DNA binding. UL44-FL thus emerges for the first time as an important determinant for HCMV replication in cells, with potential implications for the development of novel antiviral approaches by targeting HCMV replication.

Dynein light chain association sequences can facilitate nuclear protein import.

Nuclear localization sequence (NLS)-dependent nuclear protein import is not conventionally held to require interaction with microtubules (MTs) or components of the MT motor, dynein. Here we report for the first time the role of sequences conferring association with dynein light chains (DLCs) in NLS-dependent nuclear accumulation of the rabies virus P-protein. We find that P-protein nuclear accumulation is significantly enhanced by its dynein light chain association sequence (DLC-AS), dependent on MT integrity and association with DLCs, and that P-protein-DLC complexes can associate with MT cytoskeletal structures. We also find that P-protein DLC-AS, as well as analogous sequences from other proteins, acts as an independent module that can confer enhancement of nuclear accumulation to proteins carrying the P-protein NLS, as well as several heterologous NLSs. Photobleaching experiments in live cells demonstrate that the MT-dependent enhancement of NLS-mediated nuclear accumulation by the P-protein DLC-AS involves an increased rate of nuclear import. This is the first report of DLC-AS enhancement of NLS function, identifying a novel mechanism regulating nuclear transport with relevance to viral and cellular protein biology. Importantly, this data indicates that DLC-ASs represent versatile modules to enhance nuclear delivery with potential therapeutic application.

A microtubule-facilitated nuclear import pathway for cancer regulatory proteins.

Nuclear protein import is dependent on specific targeting signals within cargo proteins recognized by importins (IMPs) that mediate translocation through the nuclear pore. Recent evidence, however, implicates a role for the microtubule (MT) network in facilitating nuclear import of the cancer regulatory proteins parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) and p53 tumor suppressor. Here we assess the extent to which MT and actin integrity may be generally required for nuclear protein import for the first time. We examine 10 nuclear-localizing proteins with diverse IMP-dependent nuclear import pathways, our results indicating that the cytoskeleton does not have a general mechanistic role in nuclear localization sequence-dependent nuclear protein import. Of the proteins examined, only the p110(Rb) tumor suppressor protein Rb, together with p53 and PTHrP, was found to require MT integrity for optimal nuclear import. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching experiments indicated that the MT-dependent nuclear transport pathway increases both the rate and extent of Rb nuclear import but does not affect Rb nuclear export. Dynamitin overexpression experiments implicate the MT motor dynein in the import process. The results indicate that, additional to IMP/diffusion-dependent processes, certain cancer regulatory proteins utilize an MT-enhanced pathway for accelerated nuclear import that is presumably required for their nuclear functions.

Avaliaçäo da genotoxicidade em cirurgiöes-dentistas da cidade de Pelotas-RS através do teste de micronúcleos em células esfoliadas da mucosa bucal / Genotoxicity evaluation in dentists of Pelotas city-RS through micronucleus test in bucal exfoliated mucosal cells

Milhöes de trabalhadores em vários setores ocupacionais correm o risco potencial de estarem expostos a substâncias perigosas. Há alguns anos tem sido debatido o amálgama dentário e seu efeito potencial par a saúde. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o efeito do mercúrio do amálgama nos cirurgiöes-dentistas expostos a essa substância, por pelo menos cinco anos. Muitas substâncias säo genotóxicas e podem causar alteraçöes genéticas nas células somáticas de trabalhadores expostos. Neste estudo, foi utilizado o teste de micronúcleos (MN) em células esfoliadas, por ser um teste de baixo custo, näo invasivo, no qual a formaçäo de MN é um biomarcador para detectar efeitos endógenos do estilo de vida, exposiçöes ocupacionais e ambientais a genotóxicos, como também, a proteçäo de vários compostos em estudos de intervençäo. A freqüência de células com micronúcleos em cirurgiöes-dentistas com hábito alcoólico (4,43CMN ñ4,16) foi significativamente mais baixa (P <0,001) do que a dos dentistas sem hábito alcoólico (14,50CMNñ16,72). Os fumantes expostos apresentaram freqüência de células com micronúcleos (4,50CMN ñ2,12) significativamente mais baixa (P <0,001) do que a dos näo fumantes (10,62CMN ñ14,06). A idade e o tempo de trabalho näo influenciaram na freqüência de células com micronúcleos nestes profissionais