Variability and coordination patterns of walking with different speeds in active and non-active children with Down syndrome: A cross-sectional case-control study.

Purpose: Children with Down syndrome (DS) have multiple difficulties in gait pattern. So, the effect of the activity level and speed on the gait coordination and variability was investigated. Methods: In this case-control observational study, 24 participants in three groups of active and non-active children with DS, and the control group without intellectual disability were asked to walk on a treadmill with two speeds of 0.8 and 1.2 m/s. Continuous Relative Phase (CRP) and variability of CRP in thigh-leg and leg-foot coupling were assessed. Results: CRP and variability of CRP in the leg-foot coupling in the control group were significantly higher than active and non-active groups with DS. Speed led to increase the CRP of leg-foot in the active group with DS and increase the variability of this coupling in non-active group with DS. Conclusion: In this study, the activity level provided the compatibility with speed changes of walking in CRP of leg-foot in children with DS.

Algorithm-Based Practice Schedule and Task Similarity Enhance Motor Learning in Older Adults.

According to the challenge point framework, task difficulty has to be appropriate to learner skill level. The pure blocked or random practice controls the task difficulty during practice monotonically. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of algorithm-based practice schedule and task similarity on motor learning in older adults. For this purpose, 60 older adults were randomly assigned into six groups of blocked-similar, algorithm-similar, random-similar, blocked-dissimilar, algorithm-dissimilar, and random-dissimilar. Sequential motor tasks were used for learning. Participants practiced absolute timing goals in similar (1350, 1500, 1650 ms) or dissimilar (1050, 1500, 1950 ms) conditions according to their practice schedule. Twenty-four hours after the acquisition phase, retention, and transfer tests were performed. Algorithm-practice was a hybrid practice schedule (blocked, serial, and random practice in forward/backward switching) that switching the schedules was according to error trial number (n ≤ 33%) in each block based on error range of absolute timing goals (± 5%). The results showed that the blocked-practice outperforms the other groups during the acquisition phase, whereas the algorithm-practice outperforms the other groups in retention and transfer in both similar and dissimilar conditions. These findings were discussed according to the challenge point framework.

Neural Mechanisms of the Contextual Interference Effect and Parameter Similarity on Motor Learning in Older Adults: An EEG Study.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the neural mechanisms of the contextual interference effect (CIE) and parameter similarity on motor learning in older adults. Sixty older adults (mean age, 67.68 ± 3.95 years) were randomly assigned to one of six experimental groups: blocked-similar, algorithm-similar, random-similar, blocked-dissimilar, algorithm-dissimilar, and random-dissimilar. Algorithm practice was a hybrid practice schedule (a combination of blocked, serial, and random practice) that switching between practice schedules were based on error trial number, ≤33%. The sequential motor task was used to record the absolute timing for the absolute timing goals (ATGs). In similar conditions, the participants' performance was near ATGs (1,350, 1,500, 1,650 ms) and in dissimilar conditions, they performed far ATGs (1,050, 1,500, 1,950 ms) with the same spatial sequence for all groups. EEG signals were continuously collected during the acquisition phase and delayed retention. Data were analyzed in different bands (alpha and beta) and scalp locations (frontal: Fp1, Fp2, F3, F4; central: C3, C4; and parietal: P3, P4) with repeated measures on the last factor. The analyses were included motor preparation and intertrial interval (motor evaluation) periods in the first six blocks and the last six blocks, respectively. The results of behavioral data indicated that algorithm practice resulted in medium error related to classic blocked and random practice during the acquisition, however, algorithm practice outperformed the classic blocked and random practice in the delayed retention test. The results of EEG data demonstrated that algorithm practice, due to optimal activity in the frontal lobe (medium alpha and beta activation at prefrontal), resulted in increased activity of sensorimotor areas (high alpha activation at C3 and P4) in older adults. Also, EEG data showed that similar conditions could affect the intertrial interval period (medium alpha and beta activation in frontal in the last six-block), while the dissimilar conditions could affect the motor preparation period (medium alpha and beta activation in frontal in the first six-block). In conclusion, algorithm practice can enhance motor learning and optimize the efficiency of brain activity, resulting in the achievement of a desirable goal in older adults.

Is visuomotor training an effective intervention for children with autism spectrum disorders?

PURPOSE: Investigation of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is somewhat dependent on addressing main core features of ASD. But it is not clear which kind of investigation can effect on more difficulties features. So, this study examines the effect of the visuomotor, motor, and computer-based training programs on social behavior, motor skills, and repetitive behaviors of children with ASD. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Sixty children with ASD aged 6-12 years were recruited and assigned to one of the three experimental groups and the control group (each group n=15). Training was provided in 30 sessions, scheduled 3 times a week. Social behavior and repetitive behaviors were determined objectively using the observation method, and motor skills were evaluated by the Test of Gross Motor Development-2. RESULTS: Our results suggested that children in the visuomotor group showed a significant reduction in the repetitive behaviors and an increase in gross motor skill scores in the post-test and follow-up. Also, the results exhibited that motor training group significantly improved in social behavior either in the post-test or follow-up. Although the post-test illustrated a considerable improvement of gross motor skills, this difference was not significant in follow-up. Similarly, no significant change was observed in visual training and control groups in relation to study variables. CONCLUSION: Given the improvement of repetitive behaviors and gross motor skills in post-test and follow-up, it seems that this investigation had a positive effect with a good retention effect on two core features of children with ASD. But according to group-based training protocol in motor training group and improvement in social communication, and mutual effect on gross motor skills, it seems that group-based practice can also be used to achieve the benefits of social communication in the investigations.

Effects of a Motor Intervention Program on Motor Skills and Executive Functions in Children With Learning Disabilities.

This study examined the effect of a motor intervention based on the attention, balance, and coordination (ABC) learning approach on motor proficiency and executive functions in children with learning disabilities (LD). Forty-five male elementary school students with LD aged 7-9 years were recruited and randomly assigned into one of three groups: two experimental groups and one control group. Experimental Group A received only the motor intervention. Experimental Group B simultaneously received both motor intervention and regular educational services. The control group received only regular educational services. The motor intervention involved sequential station exercises based on ABC; this training took place in 24 sessions, scheduled three times a week for eight weeks. We obtained children's scores on the Bruininks-Oseretsky Tests of Motor Proficiency, N-Back Test, Tower of London, and Continuous Performance Tests at pretest, posttest, and follow-up testing. Our results showed that both experimental groups significantly improved their motor skills and most measures of executive functions, relative to no significant improvement for the control group. The improvements on some measures of executive functions in Experimental Group B were just slightly better than in Experimental Group A. This study supported Blythe's ABC learning approach emphasizing ABC, and it extended earlier findings of benefits of this approach to populations of children with LD.

Electroencephalography Pattern Variations During Motor Skill Acquisition.

The present study examined how motor skill acquisition affects electroencephalography patterns and compared short- and long-term electroencephalography variations. For this purpose, 17 volunteers with no history of disease, aged 18 to 22 years, attended seven training sessions every other day to practice a pursuit tracking motor skill. Electroencephalography brainwaves were recorded and analyzed on the first and last days within pre- and post-training intervals. The results showed a significant decrease in performance error and variability with practice over time. This progress slowed at the end of training, and there was no significant improvement in individual performance at the last session. In accordance with performance variations, some changes occurred in brainwaves. Specifically, θ power at Fz and α power at Cz increased on the last test day, compared with the first, while the coherence of α at Fz-T3 and Fz-Cz decreased. ß Coherence between Fz-Cz was significantly reduced from pre- to posttest. Based on these results, power changes seem to be more affected by long-term training, whereas coherence changes are sensitive to both short- and long-term training. Specifically, ß coherence at Fz-Cz was more influenced by short-term effects of training, whereas θ power at Fz, α power at Cz, and α coherence at Fz-T3 and Fz-Cz were affected by longer training.

Random Versus Blocked Practice to Enhance Mental Representation in Golf Putting.

The purpose of this study was to investigate changes in mental representation from either random or blocked practice when engaged in golf putting. Thirty participants were randomly assigned to random practice, blocked practice, and no-practice groups. First, we measured novice golfers' initial mental representation levels and required them to perform 18 putting trials as a pre-test. We then asked random and blocked groups to practice in accordance with their group assignment for six consecutive days (10 blocks each day, 18 trials each). A week after the last practice session, we re-measured all participants' final mental representation levels and required them to perform 18 putting trials to evaluate learning retention through practice. While those engaged in the random practice method putted more poorly during acquisition (i.e., practice) than those in blocked practice, the random practice group experienced more accurate retention during the final putting trials, and they showed a more structured mental representation than those in blocked practice, one that was more similar to that of skilled golfers. These results support the acquisition of a rich mental representation through random versus blocked practice.

Efecto del entrenamiento de la fuerza por procesos sobre el equilibrio de los niños con trastorno del desarrollo de la coordinación / The effect of strength training based on process approach intervention on balance of children with developmental coordination disorder

Introducción. El equilibrio es uno de los problemas más importantes de los niños con trastorno del desarrollo de la coordinación (TDC). Según el enfoque por procesos, además del entrenamiento de la fuerza, las adaptaciones neuromusculares pueden mejorar el equilibrio. Objetivo. Evaluar los efectos del entrenamiento de la fuerza sobre el equilibrio estático y dinámico de los niños con TDC. Métodos y población. En el estudio participaron niños de 7 a 9 años de edad de Teherán, y el diseño utilizado fue el de un ensayo controlado aleatorizado. A los sujetos se los separó aleatoriamente en dos grupos: experimental (n= 15) y de referencia (n = 15). Los participantes tuvieron 24 sesiones de ejercicio a lo largo de 12 semanas. El grupo experimental realizó el entrenamiento de la fuerza con ejercicios con la banda elástica flexible Thera-band®, mientras que el grupo de referencia hizo los ejercicios de rutina de la clase de educación física. Se midió la fuerza isométrica de los músculos abductores de la cadera y de los flexores plantares con un dinamómetro manual, y se utilizó la prueba de destrezas motoras de Bruininks-Oseretsky, segunda edición (BOT-2, por sus siglas en inglés) para medir el equilibrio estático y dinámico. Los datos se analizaron con pruebas t para muestras independientes y emparejadas. Resultados. El entrenamiento de la fuerza aumentó significativamente la fuerza muscular de los niños con TDC (P < 0,001) y mejoró su equilibrio estático (P < 0,05); sin embargo, estos ej ercicios no tuvieron un efecto significativo sobre el equilibrio dinámico (P > 0,05). Conclusión. El entrenamiento de la fuerza mejora el equilibrio estático de los niños con TDC. No se observó una mejoría del equilibrio dinámico como resultado del entrenamiento de la fuerza en estos niños.

Introduction. Balance is one of the main problems of children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). According to process-oriented approach, besides strength training, neuromuscular adaptations can improve balance. Objective. To evaluate the effects of strength training on improving static and dynamic balance in DCD children. Methods and population. Children between 7 to 9 years old in Tehran participated in the study through randomized controlled trial design. Subjects were randomly divided into two experimental (n = 15) and control (n= 15) groups. The participants exercised for 12 weeks and 24 sessions. The experimental group received strength training using flexible Thera-band elastic exercise and control group received routine exercises in physical education class. Isometric strength of hip abductor muscles and plantar flexors were measured using hand held dynamometer, and Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition (BOT-2) was used for measurement of static and dynamic balance. Data were analyzed using independent and paired sample t-tests. Results. Strength training significantly increased muscle strength in DCD children (P <0.001) and improved their static balance performance (P <0.05); however, these exercises had no significant effect on their dynamic balance performance (P >0.05). Conclusion. The strength training leads to static balance improve in DCD children. There was not an improvement in dynamic balance through the strength training in these children.

The effect of strength training based on process approach intervention on balance of children with developmental coordination disorder. / Efecto del entrenamiento de la fuerza por procesos sobre el equilibrio de los niños con trastorno del desarrollo de la coordinación.

INTRODUCTION: Balance is one of the main problems of children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). According to process-oriented approach, besides strength training, neuromuscular adaptations can improve balance. OBJETIVE: To evaluate the effects of strength training on improving static and dynamic balance in DCD children. METHODS AND POPULATION: Children between 7 to 9 years old in Tehran participated in the study through randomized controlled trial design. Subjects were randomly divided into two experimental (n = 15) and control (n= 15) groups. The participants exercised for 12 weeks and 24 sessions. The experimental group received strength training using flexible Thera-band elastic exercise and control group received routine exercises in physical education class. Isometric strength of hip abductor muscles and plantar flexors were measured using hand held dynamometer, and Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition (BOT-2) was used for measurement of static and dynamic balance. Data were analyzed using independent and paired sample t-tests. RESULTS: Strength training significantly increased muscle strength in DCD children (P <0.001) and improved their static balance performance (P <0.05); however, these exercises had no significant effect on their dynamic balance performance (P >0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The strength training leads to static balance improve in DCD children. There was not an improvement in dynamic balance through the strength training in these children.

INTRODUCCIÓN: El equilibrio es uno de los problemas más importantes de los niños con trastorno del desarrollo de la coordinación (TDC). Según el enfoque por procesos, además del entrenamiento de la fuerza, las adaptaciones neuromusculares pueden mejorar el equilibrio. OBJETIVO: Evaluar los efectos del entrenamiento de la fuerza sobre el equilibrio estático y dinámico de los niños con TDC. MÉTODOS Y POBLACIÓN: En el estudio participaron niños de 7 a 9 años de edad de Teherán, y el diseño utilizado fue el de un ensayo controlado aleatorizado. A los sujetos se los separó aleatoriamente en dos grupos: experimental (n= 15) y de referencia (n = 15). Los participantes tuvieron 24 sesiones de ejercicio a lo largo de 12 semanas. El grupo experimental realizó el entrenamiento de la fuerza con ejercicios con la banda elástica flexible Thera-band®, mientras que el grupo de referencia hizo los ejercicios de rutina de la clase de educación física. Se midió la fuerza isométrica de los músculos abductores de la cadera y de los flexores plantares con un dinamómetro manual, y se utilizó la prueba de destrezas motoras de Bruininks-Oseretsky, segunda edición (BOT-2, por sus siglas en inglés) para medir el equilibrio estático y dinámico. Los datos se analizaron con pruebas t para muestras independientes y emparejadas. RESULTADOS: El entrenamiento de la fuerza aumentó significativamente la fuerza muscular de los niños con TDC (P < 0,001) y mejoró su equilibrio estático (P < 0,05); sin embargo, estos ej ercicios no tuvieron un efecto significativo sobre el equilibrio dinámico (P > 0,05). CONCLUSIÓN: El entrenamiento de la fuerza mejora el equilibrio estático de los niños con TDC. No se observó una mejoría del equilibrio dinámico como resultado del entrenamiento de la fuerza en estos niños.