Comparative phylogeography uncovers evolutionary past of Holarctic dragonflies.

Here, we investigate the evolutionary history of five northern dragonfly species to evaluate what role the last glaciation period may have played in their current distributions. We look at the population structure and estimate divergence times for populations of the following species: Aeshna juncea (Linnaeus), Aeshna subarctica Walker, Sympetrum danae (Sulzer), Libellula quadrimaculata Linnaeus and Somatochlora sahlbergi Trybom across their Holarctic range. Our results suggest a common phylogeographic pattern across all species except for S. sahlbergi. First, we find that North American and European populations are genetically distinct and have perhaps been separated for more than 400,000 years. Second, our data suggests that, based on genetics, populations from the Greater Beringian region (Beringia, Japan and China) have haplotypes that cluster with North America or Europe depending on the species rather than having a shared geographic affinity. This is perhaps a result of fluctuating sea levels and ice sheet coverage during the Quaternary period that influenced dispersal routes and refugia. Indeed, glacial Beringia may have been as much a transit zone as a refugia for dragonflies. Somatochlora sahlbergi shows no genetic variation across its range and therefore does not share the geographic patterns found in the other circumboreal dragonflies studied here. Lastly, we discuss the taxonomic status of Sympetrum danae, which our results indicate is a species complex comprising two species, one found in Eurasia through Beringia, and the other in North America east and south of Beringia. Through this study we present a shared history among different species from different families of dragonflies, which are influenced by the climatic fluctuations of the past.

Intraspecific Morphological Variation in the Dragonfly Erythrodiplax Media (Odonata: Libellulidae) Among South American Grassland Physiognomies.

We assessed the intraspecific morphological variation in Erythrodiplax media Borror 1942 (Odonata, Libellulidae) among grassland physiognomies ("Coastal," "Highland," and "Steppic") in the South Brazilian Campos. We measured six morphological traits (total body length, thorax height, length, and width of the fore- and hindwings) from 90 specimens (60 males and 45 females). We tested the effect of the grassland type on the set of traits using one-way MANOVA and principal component analysis (PCA) (separately for each sex). Grassland physiognomy affected the morphology of males and females. In both sexes, the PCA mostly opposed the specimens of the Coastal from the Highland and Steppic grasslands. The first PCA axis separated specimens according to body lengths, thorax heights, and wing width, while the second PCA axis opposed specimens according to wing length and thorax height from specimens with broader wings and longer body lengths. Males from the Coastal had longer body lengths and shorter thorax heights than Highland and Steppic grasslands, while males from the Steppic had longer fore- and hindwings than specimens from the Coastal and Highland grasslands. Females from the Coastal had significantly shorter forewings than specimens from the Steppic grasslands and shorter hindwings than Highland grasslands. Our results are likely explained by the differences in climate and habitat complexity among grassland types and indicate that the processes driving odonate performance vary among grassland biotopes. This study potentially indicates that dragonflies are sensitive to changes in the vegetation structure in South American subtropical grasslands.

Rapid functional traits turnover in boreal dragonfly communities (Odonata).

All natural populations show fluctuations in space or time. This is fundamental for the maintenance of biodiversity, as it allows species to coexist. Long-term ecological studies are rare, mainly due to logistics, but studies like the one presented below recognize the dimensionality of temporal change and the ecological processes that lead to shifts in community composition over time. Here, we used three sampling occasions from a dataset spanning 20 years where dragonflies in central Sweden were monitored. Our aim was to investigate how the prevalence of ecological and biological species traits varied over time measured as Community-level Weighted Means of trait values (CWM). Most CWM values varied significantly between years. Most of the traits changed between the second and the last sampling occasion, but not between the two first ones. These changes could be linked to major changes in species abundance. Our work indicates that fundamental shifts in community structure can occur over a short time, providing environmental drivers act on species turnover. In our case, Climate change and pH levels in lakes are most likely the most important factors.

Odonate species occupancy frequency distribution and abundance-occupancy relationship patterns in temporal and permanent water bodies in a subtropical area.

This paper investigates species richness and species occupancy frequency distributions (SOFD) as well as patterns of abundance-occupancy relationship (SAOR) in Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) in a subtropical area. A total of 82 species and 1983 individuals were noted from 73 permanent and temporal water bodies (lakes and ponds) in the Pampa biome in southern Brazil. Odonate species occupancy ranged from 1 to 54. There were few widely distributed generalist species and several specialist species with a restricted distribution. About 70% of the species occurred in <10% of the water bodies, yielding a surprisingly high number of rare species, often making up the majority of the communities. No difference in species richness was found between temporal and permanent water bodies. Both temporal and permanent water bodies had odonate assemblages that fitted best with the unimodal satellite SOFD pattern. It seems that unimodal satellite SOFD pattern frequently occurred in the aquatic habitats. The SAOR pattern was positive and did not differ between permanent and temporal water bodies. Our results are consistent with a niche-based model rather than a metapopulation dynamic model.

Who should record surgical complications? Results from a third-party assessment of complications after radical cystectomy.

Objective: In Sweden complications after radical cystectomy have been reported to the nationwide population-based Swedish Cystectomy Registry since 2011. Here, validation of the reporting was assessed in two healthcare regions.Materials and methods: Complications were ascertained from patient records by a third party not involved in the care delivered to 429 randomly selected patients from 949 who had undergone radical cystectomy since 2011 in four hospitals. Without knowledge of the outcome in the primary registration, post-operative complications within 90 days post-operatively were assessed by an independent review of patient charts, and the results were compared with the primary reports in the Swedish Cystectomy Registry.Results: The third-party assessment identified post-operative complications in 310 patients (72%). Low-grade complications (Clavien-Dindo I-II) were noted in 110 (26%) of the patients in the primary registration, but increased to 182 (42%) in the validation (p < 0.00001). High-grade complications (Clavien-Dindo III-V) were reported in 113 (26%) patients in the primary registration, but in 128 (30%) of the patients in the validation (p = 0.02). According to the third-party assessment, 18 patients (4%) had Clavien-Dindo grade IV complications and 12 (3%) died within 90 days of surgery (Clavien-Dindo grade V); corresponding values in the primary registration were 15 (3%) and 9 (2%), respectively. The readmission rate within 90 days increased from 27 to 32% in the validation (p < 0.00001).Conclusions: Compared with registry data, third-party assessment revealed more complications and readmissions after radical cystectomy. Hence such evaluation may improve the validity of reported complication data.

Extremely low genetic diversity in a circumpolar dragonfly species, Somatochlora sahlbergi (Insecta: Odonata: Anisoptera).

We present the first empirical treatment of the northernmost breeding dragonfly, Somatochlora sahlbergi. We sequenced populations from United States, Canada, Finland, Sweden and Norway for cytochrome oxidase I (COI) and D2 region of 28s. We found that, despite geographic barriers across its vast arctic range, S. sahlbergi is a single species. Not only does it appear to interbreed across its entire range, there also seems to be almost no variation among European and North American populations in their COI gene fragment (the barcode gene), which is usually extremely variable. We further found that characters thought to be diagnostic for the larvae of S. sahlbergi were absent in our European samples. We review and re-describe the habitat of this species based on new findings from recent field observations. Finally, we report for the first time the likely presence of this species in Japan. We hope our findings will encourage further study of this species and other under-studied insect taxa that inhabit the remote Arctic.

Predictive value of secondary signs of obstruction in follow-up computed tomography of ureteral stones: a study with dynamic computed tomography.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to determine the ratio of obstruction and predictive values of secondary signs in follow-up computed tomography (CT) of ureterolithiasis patients; to correlate stone characteristics with obstruction; to compare enhancement of obstructed and non-obstructed kidneys; and to compare radiation dose of the dynamic CT protocol to an excretory-phase protocol. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This retrospective study assessed 49 follow-up CT scans of patients with remaining ureterolithiasis after a renal colic episode. Obstruction was measured as time taken to excretion of contrast medium in dynamic CT. Degree of secondary signs of obstruction was evaluated from the unenhanced CT. Data were collected on patients' gender and age, stone size and location, time from renal colic to follow-up, attenuation of the renal cortex and radiation dose. RESULTS: Obstruction was present in 28% (n = 14) at follow-up. Predictive values (sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value) were calculated for hydronephrosis (1.0, 0.63, 0.52, 1.0), hydroureter (1.0, 0.4, 0.4, 1.0), perirenal stranding (0.21, 0.94, 0.6, 0.75), Gerota's fascia (0.21, 0.97, 0.75, 0.76) and renal swelling (0.21, 0.97, 0.75, 0.76). Obstruction was not correlated with stone characteristics. Enhancement was lower in obstructed kidneys (p < 0.01). Radiation dose was reduced by 43% (1.8 mSv). CONCLUSIONS: Obstruction was found in 28% of patients. Secondary signs were scarce and of indeterminate value to the diagnosis of obstruction. The absence of hydronephrosis and hydroureter contradicted obstruction. Stone characteristics were not correlated with obstruction. Enhancement of the renal cortex was lower in obstructed kidneys. The dynamic protocol reduced the radiation dose.

Preliminary dragonfly (Odonata) species list from the Pampa biome in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, with ecological notes for 19 new records for the State / Lista preliminar de libélulas (Odonata) do Bioma Pampa no Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil, com notas ecológicas para 19 novos registros para o estado

Abstract An inventory of Odonata was carried out in the southern half of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, in the Pampa biome. Originally, this biogeographical region was covered mostly by open fields and grassland, with sections of higher vegetation surrounding water bodies and rocky hills. Today the landscape is fragmented due to agricultural activities, mainly cattle farming, rice crops and forest plantations. Our survey was conducted in three municipalities from this region, between March 2015 and April 2016. Aiming at a general overview of the species composition, our sampling sites were selected on a wide basis, including lakes, bogs, temporary water bodies, small streams and river sections. Eighty two species of Odonata were collected comprising 40 genera and seven families. The dominant families were Libellulidae (56,1%), Coenagrionidae (24,5%) and Aeshnidae (7,3%). We found a diverse odonate assemblage, adding 19 new species records for the state of Rio Grande do Sul.

Resumo Um inventário de Odonata foi desenvolvido na metade Sul do estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil, no Bioma Pampa. Originalmente, esta região biogeográfica era coberta principalmente por campos abertos e pastagens, com seções de vegetação mais alta nas imediações de corpos d'água e elevações rochosas. Atualmente a paisagem se encontra fragmentada devido a atividade agrícola, entre as principais, a criação de gado, cultivo de arroz e silvicultura. A pesquisa foi desenvolvida em três municípios da região, entre Março de 2015 e Abril de 2016. Buscando uma visão geral da composição de espécies, os locais de amostragem selecionados incluíram lagos, banhados, corpos d'água temporários e seções de rio. Oitenta e duas espécies foram coletadas compreendendo 40 gêneros e 7 famílias. As famílias dominantes foram Libellulidae (55,1%), Coenagrionidae (24,5%) e Aeshnidae (7,3%). Nós encontramos uma grande diversidade nas comunidades de Odonata, adicionando 19 novos registros de espécies para o estado do Rio Grande do Sul.

A Global Population Genetic Study of Pantala flavescens.

Among terrestrial arthropods, the dragonfly species Pantala flavescens is remarkable due to their nearly global distribution and extensive migratory ranges; the largest of any known insect. Capable of migrating across oceans, the potential for high rates of gene flow among geographically distant populations is significant. It has been hypothesized that P. flavescens may be a global panmictic population but no sufficient genetic evidence has been collected thus far. Through a population genetic analysis of P. flavescens samples from North America, South America, and Asia, the current study aimed to examine the extent at which gene flow is occurring on a global scale and discusses the implications of the genetic patterns we uncovered on population structure and genetic diversity of the species. This was accomplished using PCR-amplified cytochrome oxidase one (CO1) mitochondrial DNA data to reconstruct phylogenetic trees, a haplotype network, and perform molecular variance analyses. Our results suggested high rates of gene flow are occurring among all included geographic regions; providing the first significant evidence that Pantala flavescens should be considered a global panmictic population.

List of Odonates from the Floresta Nacional de São Francisco de Paula (FLONA - SFP), with two new distribution records for Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil / Lista de Odonata da Floresta Nacional de São Francisco de Paula (FLONA - SFP), com dois novos registros de distribuição para o Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil

Abstract A survey of Odonata was carried out in the National Forest FLONA - SFP, Northeastern region of the Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil. This conservation unit is mainly covered by Mixed Ombrophilous Forest (MOF), a subtype of Atlantic Forest biome, being also areas covered in planted Pinus, planted Araucaria and open fields. Our sampling efforts were conducted in thirty aquatic environments inside this reserve during the period between January 2014 and November 2014. The sampling sites were selected randomly, comprehending lakes, bogs, small streams and river sections, all inserted in the four vegetation types occurring in the reserve. Fortysix species of Odonata were collected and grouped into 23 genera and seven families. The dominant families were Coenagrionidae (32%), Libellulidae (32%), Aeshnidae (12%), and, Calopterygidae and Lestidae (9%). As expected, the findings revealed the presence of a highly diverse Odonate assemblage, mainly represented by generalist species in the most human disturbed sectors (Pinus and Open fields) and some specialist species in the pristine forest. Two species were registered for the first time in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil: Libellula herculea Karsch, 1889 (Libellulidae) and Heteragrion luizfelipei Machado, 2006 (Heteragrionidae).

Resumo Uma pesquisa de Odonatas foi desenvolvida na Floresta Nacional de São Francisco de Paula (FLONA - SFP), Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Esta unidade de conservação é, em grande parte, coberta por Floresta Ombrófila Mista, um subtipo de floresta do Bioma Mata Atlântica, sendo também áreas cobertas com plantação de Pinus, Araucaria, além de áreas de campo aberto. Nossos esforços de coleta abrangeram 30 ambientes aquáticos dentro da reserva, no período de Janeiro de 2014 e Novembro de 2014. Os locais de coleta foram selecionados aleatoriamente, compreendendo lagos, banhados, pequenos arroios e seções de rio, todos inseridos nos quatro tipos de vegetação ocorrentes na reserva. Foram coletadas 46 espécies de Odonata, agrupadas em 23 gêneros e sete famílias. As famílias dominantes foram Coenagrionidae (32%), Libellulidae (32%), Aeshnidae (12%), e, Calopterygidae e Lestidae (9%). Como esperado, os resultados revelaram a presença de uma alta diversidade de Odonata, em sua maioria generalistas, encontrados nos setores mais impactados pelo homem (Pinus e Campos abertos) e algumas espécies especialistas na floresta primária. Duas espécies foram registradas pela primeira vez no estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil: Libellula herculea Karsch, 1889 (Libellulidae) e Heteragrion luizfelipei Machado, 2006 (Heteragrionidae).

Secretions from seminal vesicles lack characteristic markers for prostasomes.

BACKGROUND: Prostasomes are suggested to be produced in the prostate gland. Although biochemical studies support this, some immunohistochemical findings indicate that also the seminal vesicles could be a source of prostasomes. Therefore, we have compared the secretion of the vesicles with that of the prostate using biochemical and ultrastructural techniques. METHODS: Ultracentrifuged pellets of substance from seminal vesicle secretions were analysed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and flow cytometry. The secretory cells of the seminal vesicles were examined with transmission electron microscopy. These findings were then compared with published results from similar studies of the prostate secretory cells. RESULTS: In SDS-PAGE, the seminal vesicle pellets lacked the three prostasome-characteristic CD-markers, namely CD10, CD13, and CD26, but expressed two proteins of about 55 kDa and 70 kDa, corresponding to clusterin and heat shock protein (HSP70). Flow cytometry showed the presence of secretion particles in the seminal pellet, although of a smaller size than that of the prostasomes. Electron microscopy of the luminal part of the cells in the seminal vesicles demonstrated many secretion granules, each enclosed in a vesicle with a size of about 1 microm. CONCLUSIONS: Pelleted seminal vesicle secretion is different to prostate secretion in several ways. No prostasome characteristics were detected in the pelleted seminal vesicle secretion.

On the mechanism of biosynthesis of 19-hydroxyprostaglandins of human seminal fluid and expression of cyclooxygenase-2, PGH 19-hydroxylase (CYP4F8) and microsomal PGE synthase-1 in seminal vesicles and vas deferens.

The predominating prostaglandins of human seminal fluid are 19R-hydroxyprostaglandins E1 and E2, conceivably formed sequentially by prostaglandin H (PGH) synthase-2, PGH 19-hydroxylase (CYP4F8), and microsomal PGE synthase-1 of seminal vesicles. Our aim was to study this enzyme system. Quantification by real-time PCR suggested that the transcripts of PGH synthase-2, CYP4F8, and microsomal PGE synthase-1 were abundant and correlated in seminal vesicles of seven patients (p < 0.05). The three enzymes were detected in seminal vesicles by Western blot analysis, and immunohistological analysis confirmed the localization to the epithelia of seminal vesicles and distal vas deferens. Immunofluorescence analysis showed co-localization of the three enzymes in epithelial cells of seminal vesicles and vas deferens. 19-Hydroxy-PGE compounds were detected by mass spectrometry in the mucosa of distal vas deferens. Recombinant CYP4F8 catalyzes n-2 hydroxylation of PGH1 and PGH2 and n-3 hydroxylation of arachidonic acid. Arachidonic acid was oxidized to 18-hydroxyarachidonic acid and to PGE2 and by microsomes of seminal vesicles in the presence of NADPH and GSH, and to relatively small amounts of 19-hydroxy-PGE2. We conclude that PGH synthase-2, CYP4F8, and PGE synthase-1 likely forms 19-hydroxy-PGE compounds in seminal vesicles and vas deferens, but the catalytic properties of CYP4F8 suggest additional biological functions. Recombinant CYP4F8 was also found to catalyze n-2 hydroxylation of PGI2 and carbaprostacyclin (Km to approximately 40 microM), and n-2 and n-3 hydroxylation of carbocyclic TXA2.

Prostasomes are secreted from poorly differentiated cells of prostate cancer metastases.

BACKGROUND: Prostasomes are small (40-500 nm), granule-like bodies, found in normal epithelial cells of the prostate and secreted into the prostate duct system. Also poorly differentiated prostate cancer cells are producing prostasomes, since we could isolate and purify prostasomes from vertebral metastases with biochemical methods. To find out whether these prostasomes are secreted into extracellular sites of the metastases, we used electron microscopy. METHODS: Small biopsies from vertebral metastases of prostate cancer, taken directly from the operating field at surgery, were immediately fixated, embedded in plastic and processed for electron microscopy. RESULTS: We found that prostasomes could be identified extracellularly in the interstitial tissues as well as in the cytoplasm of the metastatic cells. CONCLUSION: We conclude that prostasomes produced by the cells of vertebral metastases of prostate cancer are distributed both intracellularly and extracellularly in the interstitial spaces of the tissue. Thus, prostasomes of metastases could perhaps be exploited as targets for immunodiagnosis and/or immunotherapy.

Expression of CYP4F12 in gastrointestinal and urogenital epithelia.

Cytochrome P450 4F12 (CYP4F12) was originally cloned from human liver and small intestine. CYP4F12 can oxidize arachidonic acid, two stable prostaglandin H2 analogues, and an antihistamine, ebastine, but the tissue distribution and catalytic properties of CYP4F12 have not been fully investigated. An antipeptide polyclonal antibody was raised against the C-terminal of CYP4F12 (PLNVGLQ), evaluated by Western blot analysis and used for immunohistological analysis of 50 human tissues. Western blot analysis of recombinant CYP4F12, expressed in yeast, and microsomal proteins from adult and foetal liver, kidney, placenta at term, seminal vesicles, the prostate gland and purified prostasomes showed that the polyclonal antibody detected a protein of the expected size, approximately 60 kDa. CYP4F12 mRNA could be detected in seminal vesicles and prostate gland by reverse transcription-PCR. Prominent CYP4F12 immunoreactivity occurred, inter alia, in the epithelial cells of the gastrointestinal tract (stomach, small intestine, and colon), collecting tubules, transitional epithelium, ovarian follicles, the endothelium of microvessels of placental villi (first trimester), and epidermis. We screened recombinant CYP4F12 for catalytic activity. Arachidonic acid (20:4n-6) was hydroxylated at C18 and laurate at C11, but significant amounts of metabolites of 18:2n-6, 20:3n-9, 20:5n-3, 22:5n-6, and some prostaglandins could not be detected. We conclude that CYP4F12 is widely distributed in gastrointestinal and urogenital epithelia and exhibits a narrow substrate specificity.

Characteristics of human prostasomes isolated from three different sources.

BACKGROUND: Prostasomes are organelles secreted by human prostate epithelial cells and appear freely in semen. Most prostasomal functional and biochemical characteristics have been settled on basis of seminal prostasomes (SP). METHODS: Three types of prostasomes, viz., from seminal plasma, prostate gland (native), and prostate cancer bone metastasis, were isolated and compared for their biochemical and functional characteristics. RESULTS: Flow cytometry showed that all three types of prostasomes had a similar size distribution and electrophoresis revealed close similarities in banding pattern. Also, a high cholesterol/phospholipid ratio and some marker enzymes were distinctive common features. The unusual chromogranin B (CgB)/chromogranin A (CgA) ratio with CgB in abundance over CgA, previously found only in SP, was also valid for the native (NP) and metastasis-derived prostasomes (MP). The latter prostasome type contained a 10-fold higher amount of CgA compared to the others. SP and MP showed the same promotive effect on sperm forward motility, whereas NP did not. All three prostasome types exhibited an antibacterial activity against Bacillus megaterium. CONCLUSIONS: Since the three prostasome types were isolated from different environments, our data support the view that the common characteristics were prostasome-genuine.

Ultrastructure of the secretion of prostasomes from benign and malignant epithelial cells in the prostate.

BACKGROUND: Prostate epithelial cells are producing, among other things, a fluid secretion containing small bodies, the prostasomes. The mechanism of synthesis of the prostasomes is not known in details, neither is it known whether the mode of prostasome production changes at a neoplastic transformation of the prostate cells. Due to the small size of the prostasomes, we have used electron microscopy for evaluating the production and distribution of prostasomes in benign and neoplastic cells of the prostate. METHODS: Benign and neoplastic areas in plastic embedded core biopsy specimens of prostate tissue were identified, and secreting cells were selected. The corresponding areas on the plastic blocks were further processed for examination in the electron microscope. RESULTS: The electron microscopical examination showed that the secretory machinery was similar in both types of tissue. Thus, in both benign and well-differentiated neoplastic cells studied, the formation of storage vesicles in the Golgi areas was similar, the content of the vesicles appeared similar, the structure and distribution of prostasomes were alike, and in both benign and malignant tissue, the secretion in the gland ducts showed the same appearance with many prostasomes. CONCLUSION: We conclude that cells in benign prostate tissue and cells in well-differentiated prostate carcinoma show great similarities in synthesis, storage, and release of prostasomes. However, this does not exclude the presence of other changes, for instance biochemical ones, in the prostasomes.

A key to the adult Costa Rican "helicopter" damselflies (Odonata: Pseudostigmatidae) with notes on their phenology and life zone preferences

We present a key to the Costa Rican species of Pseudostigmatidae, comprising three genera with the following species: Megaloprepus caerulatus, Mecistogaster linearis, M. modesta, M. ornata and Pseudostigma aberrans. Pseudostigma accedens, which may occur in the region, is also included. For each species we give a brief account of morphology, phenology and life zone preferences, including distributional maps based on more than 270 records. These are not all of the known specimens from the area, but a high enough number to give a relatively good picture of the distribution and status of the species. We found M. caerulatus to be active during the first half of the year in seasonal, tropical semi-dry lowland forest and tropical moist forest at mid-elevation, but like M. linearis, M. caerulatus was active all year round in non-seasonal, tropical wet lowland forest and tropical moist forest at mid-elevation. Mecistogaster modesta also flew year round in non-seasonal, tropical wet lowland forest and tropical moist evergreen forest at mid-elevation, and likewise in seasonal and non-seasonal, tropical premontane moist forest. Only a few findings, however, have been made of M. modesta in seasonal, tropical semi-dry deciduous forest and seasonal, tropical moist evergreen forest. Mecistogaster ornata was missing entirely from non-seasonal, tropical wet lowland forest and non-seasonal, tropical moist forest at mid-elevation, while this species was active year round in seasonal, tropical dry lowland forest and tropical semi-dry forest, as well as in seasonal, tropical moist evergreen forest and tropical premontane moist forest, both at mid-elevation. Pseudostigma aberrans has so far been found too few times in Costa Rica for any indication of flight time preference.