Selective vulnerability of hippocampal CA1 and CA3 pyramidal cells: What are possible pathomechanisms and should more attention be paid to the CA3 region in future studies?

Transient ischemia and reperfusion selectively damage neurons in brain, with hippocampal pyramidal cells being particularly vulnerable. Even within hippocampus, heterogeneous susceptibility is evident, with higher vulnerability of CA1 versus CA3 neurons described for several decades. Therefore, numerous studies have focused exclusively on CA1. Pediatric cardiac surgery is increasingly focusing on studies of hippocampal structures, and a negative impact of cardiopulmonary bypass on the hippocampus cannot be denied. Recent studies show a shift in selective vulnerability from neurons of CA1 to CA3. This review shows that cell damage is increased in CA3, sometimes stronger than in CA1, depending on several factors (method, species, age, observation period). Despite a highly variable pattern, several markers illustrate greater damage to CA3 neurons than previously assumed. Nevertheless, the underlying cellular mechanisms have not been fully deciphered to date. The complexity is reflected in possible pathomechanisms discussed here, with numerous factors (NMDA, kainate and AMPA receptors, intrinsic oxidative stress potential and various radicals, AKT isoforms, differences in vascular architecture, ratio of pro- and anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 factors, vulnerability of interneurons, mitochondrial dysregulation) contributing to either enhanced CA1 or CA3 vulnerability. Furthermore, differences in expressed genome, proteome, metabolome, and transcriptome in CA1 and CA3 appear to influence differential behavior after damaging stimuli, thus metabolomics-, transcriptomics-, and proteomics-based analyses represent a viable option to identify pathways of selective vulnerability in hippocampal neurons. These results emphasize that future studies should focus on the CA3 field in addition to CA1, especially with regard to improving therapeutic strategies after ischemic/hypoxic brain injury.

Effects of Normobaric Hypoxia and Adrenergic Blockade over 72 h on Cardiac Function in Rats.

In rats, acute normobaric hypoxia depressed left ventricular (LV) inotropic function. After 24 h of hypoxic exposure, a slight recovery of LV function occurred. We speculated that prolonged hypoxia (72 h) would induce acclimatization and, hence, recovery of LV function. Moreover, we investigated biomarkers of nitrosative stress and apoptosis as possible causes of hypoxic LV depression. To elucidate the role of hypoxic sympathetic activation, we studied whether adrenergic blockade would further deteriorate the general state of the animals and their cardiac function. Ninety-four rats were exposed over 72 h either to normal room air (N) or to normobaric hypoxia (H). The rodents received infusion (0.1 mL/h) with 0.9% NaCl or with different adrenergic blockers. Despite clear signs of acclimatization to hypoxia, the LV depression continued persistently after 72 h of hypoxia. Immunohistochemical analyses revealed significant increases in markers of nitrosative stress, adenosine triphosphate deficiency and apoptosis in the myocardium, which could provide a possible explanation for the absence of LV function recovery. Adrenergic blockade had a slightly deteriorative effect on the hypoxic LV function compared to the hypoxic group with maintained sympathetic efficacy. These findings show that hypoxic sympathetic activation compensates, at least partially, for the compromised function in hypoxic conditions, therefore emphasizing its importance for hypoxia adaptation.

How Effective Is a Late-Onset Antihypertensive Treatment? Studies with Captopril as Monotherapy and in Combination with Nifedipine in Old Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats.

Background: A major problem in the treatment of human hypertension is the late diagnosis of hypertension and, hence, the delayed start of treatment. Very often, hypertension has existed for a long time and cardiac damage has already developed. Therefore, we tested whether late-onset antihypertensive treatment is effective in lowering blood pressure (BP) and in reducing or even preventing left ventricular hypertrophy and fibrosis. Methods: Twenty-one male 60-week-old spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) were included. Fourteen rats received oral treatment with captopril (CAP) either as monotherapy or combined with nifedipine (CAP + NIF) over 22 weeks. Seven untreated SHR served as controls. We examined the therapeutic effects on BP, heart weight and histological and biochemical markers of left ventricular remodeling and fibrosis. Results: At 82 weeks of age, BP was reduced in the CAP and CAP + NIF groups by 44 and 51 mmHg, respectively (p < 0.001), but not in untreated controls. Despite the late therapy start, cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis were attenuated compared to controls. Both treatments reduced heart weight by 1.2 mg/g (25%, p = 0.001) and collagens I and III by 66% and 60%, respectively (p < 0.001), thus proving nearly equivalent cardioprotective efficacy. Conclusion: These data clearly emphasize the benefit of antihypertensive treatment in reducing BP and mitigating the development of cardiac damage even when treatment is started late in life.

Relaxin does not prevent development of hypoxia-induced pulmonary edema in rats.

Acute hypoxia impairs left ventricular (LV) inotropic function and induces development of pulmonary edema (PE). Enhanced and uneven hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction is an important pathogenic factor of hypoxic PE. We hypothesized that the potent vasodilator relaxin might reduce hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction and prevent PE formation. Furthermore, as relaxin has shown beneficial effects in acute heart failure, we expected that relaxin might also improve LV inotropic function in hypoxia. Forty-two rats were exposed over 24 h to normoxia or hypoxia (10% N2 in O2). They were infused with either 0.9% NaCl solution (normoxic/hypoxic controls) or relaxin at two doses (15 and 75 µg kg-1 day-1). After 24 h, hemodynamic measurements and bronchoalveolar lavage were performed. Lung tissue was obtained for histological and immunohistochemical analyses. Hypoxic control rats presented significant depression of LV systolic pressure by 19% and of left and right ventricular contractility by about 40%. Relaxin did not prevent the hypoxic decrease in LV inotropic function, but re-increased right ventricular contractility. Moreover, hypoxia induced moderate interstitial PE and inflammation in the lung. Contrasting to our hypothesis, relaxin did not prevent hypoxia-induced pulmonary edema and inflammation. In hypoxic control rats, PE was similarly distributed in the apical and basal lung lobes. In relaxin-treated rats, PE index was 35-40% higher in the apical than in the basal lobe, which is probably due to gravity effects. We suggest that relaxin induced exaggerated vasodilation, and hence pulmonary overperfusion. In conclusion, the results show that relaxin does not prevent but rather may aggravate PE formation.

Antihypertensive and cardioprotective effects of different monotherapies and combination therapies in young spontaneously hypertensive rats - A pilot study.

Spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) are an established animal model for antihypertensive treatment. The aim of this pilot study was a systematic search for two lines of antihypertensive treatment - a monotherapy and a combination of two drugs - to be applied in a future study on old SHR. Originally, representatives of three drug classes recommended for antihypertensive therapy in humans should be applied, namely captopril (CAP) as an antagonist of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, nifedipine (NIF) as calcium channel blocker and propranolol (PROP) as ß-adrenergic blocker. As we observed that PROP had been poorly ingested, all groups with PROP therapy were excluded from the study. CAP (60 mg kg-1 d-1), NIF (10 mg kg-1 d-1) or both were administered orally to seven-week-old SHR over 3 weeks. A further group of SHR received no treatment (SHR/CTRL). Age-matched normotensive Wistar-Kyoto rats served as normotensive controls. We examined the effect of the antihypertensive therapies on systolic blood pressure, heart weight and on histological and biochemical markers of cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis. CAP proved to be the most effective treatment reducing blood pressure and relative heart weight significantly compared to SHR/CTRL without reaching normotensive values. Beginning cardiac fibrosis observed in SHR/CTRL was completely abrogated with CAP treatment. Similar effects were achieved with a combination of CAP and NIF. CAP as monotherapy and CAP + NIF as combination therapy were chosen for the forthcoming study on old SHR.

Remodeling of Cardiac Gap Junctional Cell-Cell Coupling.

The heart works as a functional syncytium, which is realized via cell-cell coupling maintained by gap junction channels. These channels connect two adjacent cells, so that action potentials can be transferred. Each cell contributes a hexameric hemichannel (=connexon), formed by protein subuntis named connexins. These hemichannels dock to each other and form the gap junction channel. This channel works as a low ohmic resistor also allowing the passage of small molecules up to 1000 Dalton. Connexins are a protein family comprising of 21 isoforms in humans. In the heart, the main isoforms are Cx43 (the 43 kDa connexin; ubiquitous), Cx40 (mostly in atrium and specific conduction system), and Cx45 (in early developmental states, in the conduction system, and between fibroblasts and cardiomyocytes). These gap junction channels are mainly located at the polar region of the cardiomyocytes and thus contribute to the anisotropic pattern of cardiac electrical conductivity. While in the beginning the cell-cell coupling was considered to be static, similar to an anatomically defined structure, we have learned in the past decades that gap junctions are also subject to cardiac remodeling processes in cardiac disease such as atrial fibrillation, myocardial infarction, or cardiomyopathy. The underlying remodeling processes include the modulation of connexin expression by e.g., angiotensin, endothelin, or catecholamines, as well as the modulation of the localization of the gap junctions e.g., by the direction and strength of local mechanical forces. A reduction in connexin expression can result in a reduced conduction velocity. The alteration of gap junction localization has been shown to result in altered pathways of conduction and altered anisotropy. In particular, it can produce or contribute to non-uniformity of anisotropy, and thereby can pre-form an arrhythmogenic substrate. Interestingly, these remodeling processes seem to be susceptible to certain pharmacological treatment.

Left ventricular depression and pulmonary edema in rats after short-term normobaric hypoxia: effects of adrenergic blockade and reduced fluid load.

Acute normobaric hypoxia may induce pulmonary injury with edema (PE) and inflammation. Hypoxia is accompanied by sympathetic activation. As both acute hypoxia and high plasma catecholamine levels may elicit PE, we had originally expected that adrenergic blockade may attenuate the severity of hypoxic pulmonary injury. In particular, we investigated whether administration of drugs with reduced fluid load would be beneficial with respect to both cardiocirculatory and pulmonary functions in acute hypoxia. Rats were exposed to normobaric hypoxia (10% O2) over 1.5 or 6 h and received 0.9% NaCl or adrenergic blockers either as infusion (1 ml/h, increased fluid load) or injection (0.5 ml, reduced fluid load). Control animals were kept in normoxia and received infusions or injections of 0.9% NaCl. After 6 h of hypoxia, LV inotropic function was maintained with NaCl injection but decreased significantly with NaCl infusion. Adrenergic blockade induced a similar LV depression when fluid load was low, but did not further deteriorate LV depression after 6 h of infusion. Reduced fluid load also attenuated pulmonary injury after 6 h of hypoxia. This might be due to an effective fluid drainage into the pleural space. Adrenergic blockade could not prevent PE. In general, increased fluid load and impaired LV inotropic function promote the development of PE in acute hypoxia. The main physiologic conclusion from this study is that fluid reduction under hypoxic conditions has a protective effect on cardiopulmonary function. Consequently, appropriate fluid management has particular importance to subjects in hypoxic conditions.

Cyclosporine A-enhanced cardioplegia preserves mitochondrial basal respiration after ischemic arrest.

BACKGROUND: Mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) opening plays a crucial role in cell death during ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI). Cyclosporine A (CsA) inhibits mPTP opening. This study aimed to investigate the effects of CsA treatment during cardioplegia on the mitochondrial function and cardiac IRI. METHODS: Landrace pigs (52.9 ± 3.7 kg) were subjected to midline sternotomy, cardiopulmonary bypass at 34°C and 90 minutes of cardiac arrest. They received either a single shot of standard 4°C cold histidine-tryptophan-α-ketoglutarate (HTK)-Bretschneider solution (n = 11) or HTK-Bretschneider plus 1.2 mg/L CsA (histidine-tryptophan-α-ketoglutarate plus cyclosporine A (HTK/CsA); n = 11). During reperfusion global left-ventricular function was assessed and myocardial biopsies were harvested at baseline, during ischemia and 45 minutes following reperfusion. High-resolution respirometry and hydrogen peroxide production were measured. Immunohistochemical stainings for apoptosis-inducing factor and hypoxia-inducible factor-1α as well as a flow cytometry-based JC-1 mitochondrial membrane potential assay were performed. RESULTS: Hemodynamic parameters were comparable between both groups. The cytochrome C release (HTK: 930.3 ± 804.4 pg/mg, HTK/CsA: 699.7 ± 394.0 pg/mg, p = 0.457) as well as PGC1α content (HTK: 66.7%, HTK/CsA: 33.3%, p = 0.284) was lower in the HTK/CsA group. Respiratory measurements revealed that the oxygen flux under basal respiration was higher in the HTK/CsA group (8.2 ± 1.3 pmol·O2·s-1·mg-1·ww) than in the HTK group (3.8 ± 1.4 pmol·O2·s-1·mg-1·ww, p = 0.045). There were no significant differences regarding histological surrogates of apoptosis and necrosis. CONCLUSIONS: Supplementing cardioplegic solutions with CsA enhances the basal mitochondrial respiration thereby exerting a cardioprotective effect and diminishing IRI-induced damage. CsA seems to preserve mitochondrial function via non-ROS related pathways.

Effects of Hypoxia and Acidosis on Cardiac Electrophysiology and Hemodynamics. Is NHE-Inhibition by Cariporide Still Advantageous?

Hypoxia often leads to severe cardiac malfunctions. It is assumed that intracellular calcium overload is -inter alia- responsible for left ventricular (LV) deterioration. Inhibition of the sodium-proton exchanger (NHE), which finally inhibits/slows calcium overload, may ameliorate cardiac function. Our aim was to evaluate cariporide, an inhibitor of NHE1 in a Langendorff-perfused heart model. To discriminate a potentially different impact of extracellular acidosis and hypoxia we examined 48 Chinchilla Bastard rabbits divided into 8 experimental groups: control group (pH = 7.4, O2 = 100%) without or with cariporide (1 µM), acidosis group (pH = 7.0, O2 = 100%) without or with cariporide (1 µM), hypoxia group (pH = 7.4, O2 = 40%) without or with cariporide (1 µM) and hypoxia+acidosis group (pH = 7.0, O2 = 40%) without or with cariporide (1 µM). Hearts were subjected to acidotic/hypoxic conditions for 90 min followed by 60 min of reperfusion. Hypoxia and hypoxia+acidosis led to a severe deterioration of LV function with a decrease in LV pressure by about 70% and an increase of end-diastolic pressure from 6.7 ± 0.6 to 36.8 ± 5.4 (hypoxia) or from 7.0 ± 0.2 to 18.6 ± 4.1 (hypoxia+acidosis). Moreover, maximum contraction velocity decreased from about 1,800 mmHg/s to 600 mmHg/s during hypoxia ± acidosis and maximum relaxation velocity deteriorated from -1,500 mmHg/s to about -600 mmHg/s. During reperfusion hearts subjected to hypoxia+acidosis recovered faster than hearts subjected to hypoxia alone, reaching control levels after 5 min of reperfusion. Electrophysiologic analysis revealed an 1.2 fold increase in both dispersion of activation-recovery interval and in total activation time in the hypoxia ± acidosis group. Cariporide application significantly improved LV hemodynamics and electrophysiology in the hypoxia group but not in the group subjected to hypoxia+acidosis. Immunohistologic analysis of cardiac specimen revealed a significant increase of factors involved in hypoxia/reperfusion injury like nitrotyrosine and poly-ADP-ribose as well as apoptosis-inducing factors like AIF or cleaved-caspase 3 in LV after hypoxia ± acidosis. ATP was reduced by hypoxia but not by acidosis. Again, cariporide mitigated these processes only in the hypoxia alone group, but not in the group with additional acidosis. Acidosis without hypoxia only marginally disturbed LV function and electrophysiology, and was not affected by cariporide. Thus, our study demonstrated that several detrimental effects of hypoxia were mitigated or abrogated by acidosis and that NHE-inhibition improved only hypoxia-induced cardiac dysfunction.

Anti-oxidative or anti-inflammatory additives reduce ischemia/reperfusions injury in an animal model of cardiopulmonary bypass.

Severe inborn cardiac malformations are typically corrected in cardioplegia, with a cardio-pulmonary bypass (CPB) taking over body circulation. During the operation the arrested hearts are subjected to a global ischemia/reperfusion injury. Although the applied cardioplegic solutions have a certain protective effect, application of additional substances to reduce cardiac damage are of interest.18 domestic piglets (10-15 kg) were subjected to a 90 min CPB and a 120 min reperfusion phase without or with the application of epigallocatechin-3-gallate (10 mg/kg body weight) or minocycline (4 mg/kg body weight), with both drugs given before and after CPB. 18 additional sham-operated piglets without or with epigallocatechin-3-gallate or minocycline served as controls. In total 36 piglets were analyzed (3 CPB-groups and 3 control groups without or with epigallocatechin-3-gallate or minocycline respectively; 6 piglets per group). Hemodynamic and blood parameters and ATP-measurements were assessed. Moreover, a histological evaluation of the heart muscle was performed. RESULTS: Piglets of the CPB-group needed more catecholamine support to achieve sufficient blood pressure. Ejection fraction and cardiac output were not different between the 6 groups. However, cardiac ATP-levels and blood lactate were significantly lower and creatine kinase was significantly higher in the three CPB-groups. Markers of apoptosis, hypoxia, nitrosative and oxidative stress were significantly elevated in hearts of the CPB-group. Nevertheless, addition of epigallocatechin-3-gallate or minocycline significantly reduced markers of myocardial damage. Noteworthy, EGCG was more effective in reducing markers of hypoxia, whereas minocycline more efficiently decreased inflammation. CONCLUSIONS: While epigallocatechin-3-gallate or minocycline did not improve cardiac hemodynamics, markers of myocardial damage were significantly lower in the CPB-groups with epigallocatechin-3-gallate or minocycline supplementation.

First paediatric cohort for the evaluation of inflammation in endomyocardial biopsies derived from congenital heart surgery.

BACKGROUND: Endomyocardial biopsies (EMB) are the gold standard for the diagnosis of myocarditis in children and adults. The existing WHO/ISFC criteria for lymphocytic cell infiltrates by are based on the myocardium of adults. The aim of this study was to present a paediatric control cohort for the evaluation of inflammation in EMB of children. METHODS: In this study endomyocardial tissue from 62 children under 4 years of age was investigated, being collected during a planned open heart surgery with routine resection from ventricular site. Patients had no history of infection or myocardial inflammation. The heart tissue was formalin fixed and embedded in paraffin. Four µm thick tissue sections were stained with haematoxylin and eosin, Masson's trichrome, and Giemsa. Immunohistochemical stainings included quantitative evaluation of CD3+ T cells, CD20+ B cells, CD68+ macrophages and MHCII expression. RESULTS: The myocardium was obtained in 96.8% (n = 60) of the cases from the right and in 3.2% (n = 2) from the left ventricle. The median age (interquartile range) at biopsy was 0.5 years (0.3-0.9), 66.1% male. Within this cohort, a median of 2.5/mm2 (1.0-4.0) CD3+ T cells, 0.5/mm2 (0.0-0.6) CD20+ B cells and 4.0/mm2 (2.5-6.0) CD68+ macrophages were detected. The MHC II grade was 0 in 71.0% (n = 44) and 1 in 29.0% (n = 18). CONCLUSION: This is the first paediatric control cohort being relevant for the correct interpretation of inflammatory heart diseases in EMB. The lymphocytic cell numbers in children needing congenital heart surgery without myocardial inflammation are below the existing values in adults.

Impact of Custodiol-N cardioplegia on acute kidney injury after cardiopulmonary bypass.

Myocardial protection during cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) can be achieved using cardioplegic solutions. Although, acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common complication following CPB, the effects of cardioplegic solutions on AKI have rarely been investigated. Within this study, the effects of the cardioplegic solutions histidine-tryptophan-ketoglutarate (HTK; Custodiol) and HTK-N (Custodiol-N) on AKI in a large animal model were compared. Therefore, Landrace pigs underwent median sternotomy, CPB at 34°C, 90 minutes of cardiac arrest and 120 minutes of reperfusion. Animals were randomized for single-shot cardioplegia with either HTK (n = 10) or HTK-N (n = 10). Renal biopsies and sera were analyzed to determine AKI biomarkers and apoptosis. Compared to HTK, HTK-N induced a decreased extent of proximal tubule swelling (48.3 ± 1.6 µm vs 52.3 ± 1.1 µm, P = .05) and decreased cytochrome c release (0.26 ± 0.04 vs 0.46 ± 0.08, P = .04) without reaching statistical significance due to Bonferroni correction. Comparing baseline and postreperfusion levels, the hemoglobin (Hb) and blood calcium levels were lower in HTK-N (Hbbaseline : 6.0 ± 0.6 mmol/L, Hbreperfusion : 6.2 ± 0.7 mmol/L, P = .12; Ca2+baseline : 1.36 ± 0.05 mmol/L, Ca2+reperfusion : 1.28 ± 0.05 mmol/L, P = .16) compared to the HTK group (Hbbaseline : 5.9 ± 0.4 mmol/L, Hbreperfusion : 4.7 ± 0.8 mmol/L, P < .01; Ca2+baseline : 1.34 ± 0.07 mmol/L, Ca2+reperfusion : 1.24 ± 0.06 mmol/L, P < .01). The present study showed that HTK-N could positively affect the kidney during CPB. Hb and calcium levels were stabilized. A statistical trend was found showing that AKI-related proximal tubule swelling and cytochrome c release were diminished.

Effects of Adrenergic Agonists and Antagonists on Cardiopulmonary Function During Normobaric Hypoxia in Rat.

Pulmonary edema (PE) is an issue widely noted in acute exposure to hypoxia as seen in high altitude climbers, yet the etiology of this is not defined. Previous studies in rats showed that both hypoxia and strong sympathetic activation may induce PE. As acute exposure to hypoxia is accompanied by sympathetic activation, we assume that this may impair pulmonary circulation and contribute to the development of hypoxic PE. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of adrenergic agonists and antagonists as models for overstimulation and suppression, respectively, of sympathetic activity on cardiovascular function and formation of PE in hypoxic rats. Norepinephrine or adrenergic blockers were infused to rats exposed to normobaric hypoxia with 10% O2 over time intervals up to 24 h. Normoxic and hypoxic controls received 0.9% NaCl infusion. We evaluated hemodynamic function and lung histology. A significant decrease of left ventricular systolic function was observed after 6 h of hypoxia. This effect was less pronounced with α-adrenergic blockade but was more severe with combined α-plus ß-adrenergic blockade. Norepinephrine delayed the onset of hypoxic left ventricular depression but did not reduce its degree. Significant PE developed after 16 h of hypoxia. It regressed under α- but not with ß-adrenergic blockade, and was aggravated by combining hypoxia with norepinephrine. Almost half of the animals exposed to hypoxia over 16-24 h suffered cardiorespiratory arrest during the experiment and presented with signs of acute right ventricular failure. They had significantly elevated serum catecholamine concentrations and significantly stronger PE than the others. Notably, most of them had received norepinephrine or combined adrenergic blockade. Mild changes in serum catecholamine concentrations indicated that hypoxic sympathoadrenergic activation was only weak. Hence, it was not sufficient to prevent left ventricular depression. However, the results show that α-adrenergic mechanisms contribute to the formation of hypoxic PE. Adrenergic blockade but also sympathetic overactivity may induce pulmonary congestion, PE and acute right ventricular failure indicating that a fine balance of sympathetic activation under hypoxic conditions is crucial. This has important implications for climbers to high altitude as well as for patients suffering from hypoxia.

Golgi Fragmentation in Human Patients with Chronic Atrial Fibrillation: A New Aspect of Remodeling.

BACKGROUND: Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common chronic arrhythmia in elderly people and is accompanied by remodeling processes. While much is known about changes in ionic channels and in extracellular matrix, less is known about possible changes of intracellular structures. OBJECTIVE: We wanted to investigate, whether AF may also affect the structure of the Golgi apparatus and the microtubular network. METHODS: One-hundred fifty-three cardiac surgery patients were investigated [n = 24 in sinus rhythm (SR) and n = 129 with chronic AF of >1 year duration]. Tissue samples of the left atrial free wall were examined immunohistochemically. Golgi apparatus was detected by GM130 and its phosphorylated isoform. Furthermore, we investigated the length of the microtubules by α-tubulin staining. We also measured stathmin (phospho-S37), which is known to induce microtubule depolymerization. In addition, we investigated the cyclin-dependent kinase cdk5-activation, a typical stimulus for Golgi fragmentation, by measuring membrane-associated cdk5. RESULTS: We found significant fragmentation of the Golgi apparatus in AF together with a reduced fragment size. Significant more fragments of the Golgi were found lateral to the nucleus in AF, while the Golgi in SR was located more to the polar side of the nucleus, that is, in the longitudinal axis of the cell. This was accompanied by a significant reduction of the number of tubulin strands longer than 10 µm. These changes did not go along with an activation of stathmin, but with an increase in membrane association of cdk5. CONCLUSIONS: The present data may show that AF associated remodeling also involves intracellular remodeling of the Golgi-microtubular apparatus.

Aspects of Methamphetamine Abuse in Adolescents and Young Adults in a Thuringian County.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: Drug abuse is an increasing problem among young adults in European countries. We wanted to assess the prevalence of methamphetamine and cannabis use in young people and to ask for their socioeconomic, parental and emotional background. METHODS: All pupils (n = 1,087) in the final class of 3 school types (-general school [in Germany: Hauptschule/Regelschule mit Hauptschulabschluss] class 9, regular school [in Germany: Regelschule] class 10, high school [in Germany: Gymnasium] class 10) and the first 2 classes of the vocational school (in Germany: Berufsschule) in the entire rural district of Altenburger Land, a Thuringian county in Germany with a total of 92,344 inhabitants were asked to fill out a 2-page questionnaire. In all, 920 questionnaires could be finally evaluated (mean age: 16.6 ± 0.07 years; mode value: 16; maximum range: 13-29). RESULTS: In the entire group, 5.81% (33 females, 20 males) reported the use of methamphetamine, while 42.8% stated that they have used it only once, the remaining 57.2% specified that they have used it on a more regular basis, mostly once a month, but 14.2% had used it almost daily. With regard to the socioeconomic background, 55% of the parents of the methamphetamine users were employees and 10% of the parents were in a leading position. This was not different from the non-user group (p = 0.193). Unemployment of the parents was found in 6.5% of the methamphetamine users and in 4.7% of the non-users. Overall, 67.92% had a basic knowledge of the side effects of this drug. In 55.32% of the methamphetamine users, the parents lived alone, were divorced or widowed, while this was only 33.1% in the non-user group. Of all the methamphetamine users, 69% had friends who also consumed the drug, which may give a hint on the impact of a peer group. In the entire group, 29.84% were smokers (female group: 28.47%; male group 31.25%) and 25.5% consumed cannabis. Ecstasy was used by a total of 4.05% and cocaine by 1.53%. No participant mentioned that they have used opiates. CONCLUSION: Among pupils aged about 16 years nearly 6% reported to have consumed methamphetamine. This group has a middle socioeconomic background. Two factors were strongly associated with methamphetamine usage: a family with only a single parent and friends who were used to taking methamphetamine. The self-perception of users was generally considered to be a disadvantage as compared to the other factors.

Epigallocatechin Gallate Reduces Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury in Isolated Perfused Rabbit Hearts.

Cardioplegic arrest during heart operations is often used in cardiac surgery. During cardioplegia, the heart is subjected to a global ischemia/reperfusion-injury. (-)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), one of the main ingredients of green tea, seems to be beneficial in various cardiac diseases. Therefore, the aim of our study was to evaluate EGCG in a rabbit model of cardioplegic arrest. Twenty four mature Chinchilla rabbits were examined. Rabbit hearts were isolated and perfused according to Langendorff. After induction of cardioplegia (without and with 20 µmol/L EGCG, n = 6 each) the hearts maintained arrested for 90-min. Thereafter, the hearts were re-perfused for 60 min. During the entire experiment hemodynamic and functional data were assessed. At the end of each experiment, left ventricular samples were processed for ATP measurements and for histological analysis. Directly after cessation of cardioplegia, all hearts showed the same decline in systolic and diastolic function. However, hearts of the EGCG-group showed a significantly faster and better hemodynamic recovery during reperfusion. In addition, tissue ATP-levels were significantly higher in the EGCG-treated hearts. Histological analysis revealed that markers of nitrosative and oxidative stress were significantly lower in the EGCG group. Thus, addition of EGCG significantly protected the cardiac muscle from ischemia/reperfusion injury.

Calcification or Not. This Is the Question. A 1-Year Study of Bovine Pericardial Vascular Patches (CardioCel) in Minipigs.

A main problem with bioprosthesis used for surgical correction of congenital cardiac malformation is its tendency to shrink and to calcify. Recently, a new material, that is, decellularized bovine pericardium (CardioCel), was introduced in clinics. It was proposed that this new patch material should not calcify and should be particularly suitable for the correction of vascular defects in inborn cardiac diseases. The aim of our chronic minipig study was to evaluate the performance of CardioCel patches implanted in aortic and pulmonary artery position, respectively. Ten minipigs aged 3 months were operated on. A CardioCel patch was implanted in the aorta ascendens and arteria pulmonalis, respectively. Seven minipigs completed the 12 months' follow-up. Angiography of both vessels, measurement of pressure gradients, and histologic evaluation of the implanted patches were carried out. Angiography of both great vessels revealed a good clinical outcome without stenosis. However, histologic examination of the patches showed calcification and neo-formation of hyaline cartilage in both vessel types. Staining of collagen and elastic fibers as well as α-smooth muscle actin demonstrated that the patches did not remodel into an anatomic vascular structure during the 1 year of implantation. In our chronic piglet model, CardioCel patches, when implanted in the ascending aorta and the pulmonary artery, led to calcification and neo-formation of hyaline cartilage in both vessel types 1 year after implantation. The present study indicates that the ideal patch biomaterial for repair of inborn cardiac diseases is still a goal not achieved yet.

Olesoxime Inhibits Cardioplegia-Induced Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury. A Study in Langendorff-Perfused Rabbit Hearts.

Objective: During cardioplegia, which is often used in cardiac surgery, the heart is subjected to global ischemia/reperfusion injury, which can result in a post-operative impairment of cardiac function. Mitochondria permeability transition pores (MPTP) play a key role in cardiomyocyte survival after ischemia/reperfusion injury. It was shown in clinical settings that blockers of MPTP like cyclosporine might have a positive influence on cardiac function after cardioplegic arrest. Olesoxime, which is a new drug with MPTP blocking activity, has been introduced as a neuroprotective therapeutic agent. This drug has not been investigated on a possible positive effect in ischemia/reperfusion injury in hearts. Therefore, the aim of our study was to investigate possible effects of olesoxime on cardiac recovery after cardioplegic arrest. Methods: We evaluated 14 mature Chinchilla bastard rabbits of 1,500-2,000 g. Rabbit hearts were isolated and perfused with constant pressure according to Langendorff. After induction of cardioplegic arrest (30 ml 4°C cold Custodiol cardioplegia without and with 5 µmol/L olesoxime, n = 7 each) the hearts maintained arrested for 90-min. Thereafter, the hearts were re-perfused for 60 min. At the end of each experiment left ventricular samples were frozen in liquid nitrogen for ATP measurements. Furthermore, heart slices were embedded in paraffin for histological analysis. During the entire experiment hemodynamic and functional data such as left ventricular pressure (LVP), dp/dt(max) and (min), pressure rate product (PRP), coronary flow, pO2, and pCO2 were also assessed. Results: Histological analysis revealed that despite the same ischemic burden for both groups markers of nitrosative and oxidative stress were significantly lower in the olesoxime group. Moreover, hearts of the olesoxime-group showed a significantly faster and better hemodynamic recovery during reperfusion. In addition, tissue ATP-levels were significantly higher in the olesoxime treated hearts. Conclusions: Olesoxime significantly protected the cardiac muscle from ischemia/reperfusion injury.

Neuroprotective Strategies during Cardiac Surgery with Cardiopulmonary Bypass.

Aortocoronary bypass or valve surgery usually require cardiac arrest using cardioplegic solutions. Although, in principle, in a number of cases beating heart surgery (so-called off-pump technique) is possible, aortic or valve surgery or correction of congenital heart diseases mostly require cardiopulmonary arrest. During this condition, the heart-lung machine also named cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) has to take over the circulation. It is noteworthy that the invention of a machine bypassing the heart and lungs enabled complex cardiac operations, but possible negative effects of the CPB on other organs, especially the brain, cannot be neglected. Thus, neuroprotection during CPB is still a matter of great interest. In this review, we will describe the impact of CPB on the brain and focus on pharmacological and non-pharmacological strategies to protect the brain.

Epigallocatechin gallate attenuates cardiopulmonary bypass-associated lung injury.

BACKGROUND: Lung dysfunction constitutes a severe complication after major cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB), substantially contributing to postoperative morbidity and mortality. The current possibilities of preventive and therapeutic interventions, however, remain insufficient. We, therefore, investigated the effects of intraoperative application of the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) on CPB-associated lung injury. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Thirty piglets (8-15 kg) were divided into four groups: sham-operated and saline-treated control group (n = 7); sham-operated and EGCG-treated control group (EGCG-control group; n = 7); CPB group (n = 10); and CPB + EGCG group (n = 6). The CPB groups underwent 120 min of CPB followed by 90 min of recovery time. In the CPB + EGCG group, EGCG (10 mg/kg body weight) was administered intravenously before and after CPB. Hemodynamic monitoring, blood gas analysis, hematoxylin-eosin staining, and immunohistochemistry of lung tissue were performed. RESULTS: Histologic examination revealed thickening of the alveolar wall and enhanced alveolar neutrophil infiltration in the CPB group (P < 0.05) compared with those in the control group, which was prevented by EGCG (P < 0.05). In the CPB group, higher formation of poly(ADP-ribose) and nuclear translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor was detected in comparison with those in the control group (P < 0.001), which were both reduced in the CPB + EGCG group (P < 0.001). Compared with the control group, the EGCG-control group showed thickening of the alveolar wall and increased neutrophil infiltration (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: CPB leads to lung edema, pulmonary neutrophil infiltration, and presumably initiation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-dependent cell death signaling in the lung. EGCG appears to attenuate CPB-associated lung injury, suggesting that this may provide a novel pharmacologic approach.