A Retrospective Cohort Study of Disparities in Urine Drug Testing During the Perinatal Period in an Urban, Academic Medical Center.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate disparities in urine drug testing (UDT) during perinatal care at a single academic medical center. This retrospective cohort study included patients who had a live birth and received prenatal care at our institution between 10/1/2015 and 9/30/2020. The primary outcomes were maternal UDT during pregnancy (UDTPN) and UDT only at delivery (UDTDEL). Secondary outcomes included the number of UDTs (UDTNUM) and the association between a positive UDT test result and race/ethnicity. Mixed model logistic regression and negative binomial regression with clustering based on prenatal care locations were used to control for confounders. Of 6,240 live births, 2,265 (36.3%) and 167 (2.7%) received UDTPN and UDTDEL, respectively. Black (OR 2.09, 95% CI 1.54-2.84) and individuals of Other races (OR 1.64, 95% CI 1.03-2.64) had greater odds of UDTPN compared to non-Hispanic White individuals. Black (beta = 1.12, p < 0.001) and Hispanic individuals (beta = 0.78, p < 0.001) also had a positive relationship with UDTNUM. Compared to individuals with non-Medicaid insurance, those insured by Medicaid had greater odds of UDTPN (OR 1.66, 95% CI 1.11-2.49) and had a positive relationship with UDTNUM (beta = 0.89, p < 0.001). No significant associations were found for UDTDEL and race/ethnicity. Despite receiving more UDT, Black individuals were not more likely to have a positive test result compared to non-Hispanic White individuals (OR 0.95, 95% CI 0.72-1.25). Our findings demonstrate persistent disparities in substance use testing during the perinatal period.

National Institute on Drug Abuse Clinical Trials Network Meeting Report: Managing Patients Exposed to Xylazine-Adulterated Opioids in Emergency, Hospital and Addiction Care Settings.

Used as a veterinary sedative and not approved for human use, xylazine has been increasingly linked with opioid overdose deaths in the United States. A growing number of people have been exposed to xylazine in the illicit opioid supply (especially fentanyl) or in other drugs, particularly in some areas of the Northeast. Xylazine is an α-2 adrenergic agonist that decreases sympathetic nervous system activity. When combined with fentanyl or heroin, it is purported to extend the duration of the opioid's sedative effect and to cause dependence and an associated withdrawal syndrome; however, data to support these concerns are limited. Despite the escalating frequency of detection of xylazine in people with nonfatal and fatal opioid overdose, direct links to these outcomes have not been identified. Because the strongest causal link is to fentanyl coexposure, ventilatory support and naloxone remain the cornerstones of overdose management. Xylazine is also associated with severe tissue injury, including skin ulcers and tissue loss, but little is known about the underlying mechanisms. Nonetheless, strategies for prevention and treatment are emerging. The significance and clinical effects of xylazine as an adulterant is focused on 4 domains that merit further evaluation: fentanyl-xylazine overdose, xylazine dependence and withdrawal, xylazine-associated dermal manifestations, and xylazine surveillance and detection in clinical and nonclinical settings. This report reflects the Proceedings of the National Institute on Drug Abuse Center for the Clinical Trials Network convening of clinical and scientific experts, federal staff, and other stakeholders to describe emerging best practices for treating people exposed to xylazine-adulterated opioids. Participants identified scientific gaps and opportunities for research to inform clinical practice in emergency departments, hospitals, and addiction medicine settings.

A qualitative assessment of emergency physicians' experiences with robust emergency department buprenorphine bridge programs.

OBJECTIVES: Emergency departments (EDs) are a critical point of entry into treatment for patients struggling with opioid use disorder (OUD). When initiated in the ED, buprenorphine is associated with increased addiction treatment engagement at 30 days when initiated. Despite this association, it has had slow adoption. The barriers to ED buprenorphine utilization are well documented; however, the benefits of prescribing buprenorphine for emergency physicians (EPs) have not been explored. This study utilized semistructured interviews to explore and understand how EPs perceive their experiences working in EDs that have successfully implemented ED bridge programs (EDBPs) for patients with OUD. METHODS: Semistructured interviews were conducted with EPs from four geographically diverse academic hospitals with established EDBPs. Interviews were recorded and transcribed, and emergent themes were identified using codebook thematic analysis. Analysis credibility and transparency were confirmed with peer debriefing. RESULTS: Twenty-two interviews were conducted across the four sites. Three key themes were constructed during the analyses: (1) provided EPs agency; (2) transformed EPs' emotions, attitudes, and behaviors related to treating patients with OUD; and (3) improved EPs' professional quality of life. CONCLUSIONS: Participants in this study reported several common themes related to participation in their hospital's BP. Overall our results suggest that physicians who participate in EDBPs may feel a renewed sense of fulfillment and purpose in their personal and professional lives. These positive changes may lead to increased job satisfaction in hospitals that have successfully launched EDBP.

Strategies for treating acute pain in patients with opioid dependence: a scoping review protocol.

INTRODUCTION: People who are dependent on opioids experience acute pain similar to other individuals. However, treating acute pain in these patients renders unique challenges such as opioid-induced hyperalgesia, opioid tolerance, withdrawal and stigma from healthcare providers. Thus, it is crucial to identify effective strategies for treating acute pain in this population and to highlight gaps in knowledge to create a high standard of care. The main objective of the proposed scoping review is to identify current strategies for treating the acute pain in individuals with opioid dependence or use disorder. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: MEDLINE via the PubMed interface, Embase and Cochrane Central, Web of Science: Conference Proceedings Citation Index and Google Scholar will be searched. Forward and backward citation searching of the final included studies will also be conducted. Two independent reviewers will screen the titles and abstracts of sources, review and assess relevant full-text studies and extract data. Data will be presented in a diagram and will contribute to a qualitative thematic analysis. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Data will be gathered from publicly accessible sources, so ethics approval is not necessary. The results will be disseminated through a peer-reviewed journal and reported at conferences related to addiction medicine. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: 10.17605/OSF.IO/BG6SJ.

Evaluation of an injectable monthly extended-release buprenorphine program in a low-barrier specialty addiction medicine clinic.

INTRODUCTION: Monthly injectable extended-release buprenorphine (XR-BUP) can address several systemic and individual barriers to consistent sublingual buprenorphine treatment for patients with opioid use disorder (OUD). Real-world evaluations of XR-BUP in the outpatient addiction treatment setting are limited. The purpose of this study was to compare 6-month treatment retention and urine drug tests between patients who initiated XR-BUP compared to those who were prescribed but did not initiate XR-BUP in a low-barrier addiction medicine specialty clinic. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cohort study of adults with OUD prescribed XR-BUP between 12/1/2018 and 12/31/2020 in a low-barrier addiction medicine specialty clinic to compare 6-month treatment retention between patients who initiated XR-BUP and those who were prescribed but did not initiate XR-BUP (comparison group). Secondary outcomes included percent of urine toxicology tests negative for non-prescribed opioids. Multivariable logistic regression models evaluated factors associated with 6-month treatment retention and XR-BUP initiation. RESULTS: Of the 233 patients prescribed XR-BUP, 148 (63.8 %) identified as non-Hispanic white, 218 (93.6 %) were insured by public insurance (Medicare/Medicaid), and nearly two-thirds were prescribed XR-BUP due to unstable OUD. Approximately 50 % of patients initiated XR-BUP treatment (mean number of injections = 3.7). About 60 % of XR-BUP-treated patients received supplemental sublingual buprenorphine and nearly two-thirds received a 300 mg maintenance dose. Six-month treatment retention was greater in the XR-BUP treatment versus comparison group (70.3 % vs. 36.5 %, p < 0.001). The XR-BUP treatment group had a higher percentage of opioid-negative urine toxicology tests versus the comparison group (67.2 % vs. 36.3 %, p < 0.001). Receipt of XR-BUP was an independent predictor of 6-month treatment retention (OR 5.40, 95 % CI 2.18-13.38). Those prescribed XR-BUP due to unstable OUD had lower odds of treatment retention (OR 0.41, 95 % CI 0.24-0.98) after controlling for receipt of XR-BUP and other variables known to impact retention. CONCLUSIONS: XR-BUP improved 6-month treatment retention and resulted in a greater proportion of opioid-negative urine toxicology tests compared to a comparison group of patients who were prescribed but did not initiate XR-BUP. Patients with unstable OUD had lower odds of XR-BUP initiation, suggesting the need for targeted interventions to increase XR-BUP uptake in this high-risk population.

Postmortem toxicology findings from the Camden Opioid Research Initiative.

The United States continues to be impacted by decades of an opioid misuse epidemic, worsened by the COVID-19 pandemic and by the growing prevalence of highly potent synthetic opioids (HPSO) such as fentanyl. In instances of a toxicity event, first-response administration of reversal medications such as naloxone can be insufficient to fully counteract the effects of HPSO, particularly when there is co-occurring substance use. In an effort to characterize and study this multi-faceted problem, the Camden Opioid Research Initiative (CORI) has been formed. The CORI study has collected and analyzed post-mortem toxicology data from 42 cases of decedents who expired from opioid-related toxicity in the South New Jersey region to characterize substance use profiles. Co-occurring substance use, whether by intent or through possible contamination of the illicit opioid supply, is pervasive among deaths due to opioid toxicity, and evidence of medication-assisted treatment is scarce. Nearly all (98%) of the toxicology cases show the presence of the HPSO, fentanyl, and very few (7%) results detected evidence of medication-assisted treatment for opioid use disorder, such as buprenorphine or methadone, at the time of death. The opioid toxicity reversal drug, naloxone, was detected in 19% of cases, but 100% of cases expressed one or more stimulants, and sedatives including xylazine were detected in 48% of cases. These results showing complex substance use profiles indicate that efforts at mitigating the opioid misuse epidemic must address the complications presented by co-occurring stimulant and other substance use, and reduce barriers to and stigmas of seeking effective medication-assisted treatments.

METHADONE INITIATION IN THE EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT FOR OPIOID USE DISORDER: A CASE SERIES.

BACKGROUND: In an era of fentanyl and continually rising rates of opioid overdose deaths, increasing access to evidence-based treatment for opioid use disorder (OUD) should be prioritized. Emergency department (ED) buprenorphine initiation for patients with OUD is considered best-practice. Methadone, though also evidence-based and effective, is under-utilized due to strict federal regulation, significant stigma, and lack of physician training. We describe the novel utilization of CFR Title 21 1306.07 (b), also known as the "72-hour rule," to initiate methadone for OUD in the ED. CASE SERIES: We describe the cases of 3 patients with a history of OUD who were initiated on methadone for OUD in the ED, linked to an opioid treatment program, and attended an intake appointment. Why Should an Emergency Physician Be Aware of This? The ED can be a crucial point of intervention for vulnerable patients with OUD who may not interact with the health care system in other settings. Methadone and buprenorphine are both first-line options for medication for OUD, and methadone may be preferred in patients who have been unsuccessful with buprenorphine in the past or those at higher risk of treatment dropout. Patients may also prefer methadone to buprenorphine based on previous experience or understanding of the medications. ED physicians may utilize the "72-hour rule" to administer and initiate methadone for up to 3 consecutive days while arranging referral to treatment. EDs can develop methadone initiation and bridge programs utilizing similar strategies to those that have been described in developing buprenorphine programs.

Allostatic load in opioid use disorder: a scoping review protocol.

INTRODUCTION: Opioid use disorder affects 2.1 million individuals in the USA, causing more than 100 000 overdose-related deaths annually. While the neurobiological model of addiction is well described and accepted, there is a lack of morbidity and mortality prognosticators for patients struggling with opioid use disorder. Allostatic load index is a promising candidate for the basis of a prognostication tool. Previous studies show that allostatic load predicts both morbidity and mortality in a variety of cohorts. This scoping review protocol provides the rationale and steps for summarising and presenting existing evidence surrounding allostatic load in the context of opioid use disorder. Identification of current knowledge gaps will pave the way for subsequent prospective studies. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: This scoping review protocol will follow the five-step method designed by Arksey and O'Malley. All studies written in English on allostatic load in the context of opioid use disorder, as defined in our inclusion criteria, will be included. There will be no limit on the year of publication. We will search PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, PsycINFO and Google Scholar. We will hand-review reference lists of included articles, and we will hand search grey literature. We will then group, analyse and present the data in narrative, tabular and diagrammatic format according to themes identified in the scoping review. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Ethics approval is not necessary, as data are gathered from publicly accessible sources. The results will be disseminated through a peer-reviewed journal and reported at conferences related to addiction medicine. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: 10.17605/OSF.IO/4J6DQ.

Use of Concentrated Insulin in the Management of Calcium Channel Blocker Overdose: A Case Report.

INTRODUCTION: Hyperinsulinemia-euglycemia therapy [HIE] is a first line therapy recommended in symptomatic calcium channel blocker overdose patients. HIE, particularly if administered in concentrations typically used for glycemic control, would result in a substantial amount of hypotonic fluid administration, which places patients at risk of volume overload. Therefore, it may be beneficial to utilize a concentrated insulin as a strategy to mitigate fluid overload risks. We report the case of a 73 years old, 69.9 kg female, who presented to the emergency department after an accidental ingestion of 70 mg amlodipine and was treated with HIE utilizing a uniquely concentrated insulin infusion. CASE PRESENTATION: HIE at 10 units/kg/hr. was used for approximately 17 hours. Insulin was changed from a 1 unit/mL concentration to 16 unit/mL. Dextrose 10% infusion was initiated up to a max of 650 mL/hr. and norepinephrine infusion up to a max of 10 mcg/min. DISCUSSION: Approximate fluid requirements from the 16 unit/mL concentration of insulin totaled 1 L as compared to a 1 unit/mL concentration which would have required 17 L, a total savings of 16 L. This savings potentially decreased the risk of cerebral or pulmonary edema associated with fluid overload. CONCLUSION: Use of a concentrated insulin in the setting of a calcium channel blocker or beta blocker overdose provides a unique strategy to mitigate the effects associated with fluid overload.

Impact of Administering Buprenorphine to Overdose Survivors Using Emergency Medical Services.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of utilizing emergency medical services units to administer high dose buprenorphine after an overdose to treat withdrawal symptoms, reduce repeat overdose, and provide a next-day substances use disorder clinic appointment to initiate long-term treatment. METHODS: This was a retrospective matched cohort study of patients who experienced an overdose and either received emergency medical services care from a buprenorphine-equipped ambulance or a nonbuprenorphine-equipped ambulance in Camden, New Jersey, an urban community with high overdose rates. There were 117 cases and 123 control patients in the final sample. RESULTS: Compared with a nonbuprenorphine-equipped ambulance, exposure to a buprenorphine-equipped ambulance was associated with greater odds of engaging in opioid use disorder treatment within 30 days of an emergency medical services encounter (unadjusted odds ratio: 5.62, 95% confidence interval, 2.36 to 13.39). Buprenorphine-equipped ambulance engagement did not decrease repeat overdose compared to the comparison group. Patients who received buprenorphine experienced a decrease in withdrawal symptoms. Their clinical opiate withdrawal scale score decreased from an average of 9.27 to 3.16. buprenorphine-equipped ambulances increased on-scene time by 6.12 minutes. CONCLUSION: Patients who encountered paramedics trained to administer buprenorphine and able to arrange prompt substance use disorder treatment after an acute opioid overdose demonstrated a decrease in opioid withdrawal symptoms, an increase in outpatient addiction follow-up care, and showed no difference in repeat overdose. Patients receiving buprenorphine in the out-of-hospital setting did not experience precipitated withdrawal. Expanded out-of-hospital treatment of opiate use disorder is a promising model for rapid access to buprenorphine after an overdose in a patient population that often has limited contact with the health care system.

Hospital-initiated Extended-release Injectable Buprenorphine Using a Novel Reallocation Initiative From an Outpatient Addiction Medicine Clinic.

OBJECTIVES: Novel strategies for initiation and continuation of buprenorphine are critical, especially during a pandemic when traditional opioid use disorder treatment pathways may be disrupted. We describe an innovative outpatient to inpatient reallocation initiative for extended-release buprenorphine (XR-BUP) designed to repurpose an expensive medication for use in hospitalized patients facing treatment barriers upon discharge and pilot the feasibility of XR-BUP use in the inpatient setting. METHODS: We collaborated with our institution's inpatient pharmacy and a New Jersey Medicaid managed care organization to create an alternate pathway to make XR-BUP available to hospitalized patients insured by the same payor. In this process, XR-BUP doses were deidentified and transferred to the inpatient controlled substance inventory for administration to hospitalized patients at no charge by our Addiction Medicine Consult Service after a period of sublingual buprenorphine stabilization. Our reallocation pathway bypassed several existing XR-BUP regulatory barriers to allow for inpatient administration. RESULTS: To date, we have transferred approximately 85 XR-BUP 300 mg doses to the inpatient controlled substance inventory. This equates to a cost savings of nearly $145,000. CONCLUSIONS: Reallocation of XR-BUP from an outpatient to inpatient setting increased postdischarge buprenorphine treatment access while also reducing health care costs by repurposing an expensive medication that would otherwise go to waste. Use of reallocated XR-BUP in the inpatient setting may pave the way for addition of XR-BUP to the hospital's formulary to minimize treatment gaps after discharge.

Camden Coalition Medical-Legal Partnership: Year One Analysis of Civil + Criminal MLP Model in Addiction Medicine Setting.

In 2022, the Camden Coalition Medical-Legal Partnership began providing civil and criminal legal services to substance use disorder patients at Cooper University Health Care's Center for Healing. This paper discusses early findings from the program's first year on the efficacy of the provision of criminal-legal representation, which is uncommon among MLPs and critical for this patient population. The paper concludes with takeaways for other programs providing legal services in an addiction medicine setting.

Patient Perceptions and Potential Utility of Pharmacogenetic Testing in Chronic Pain Management and Opioid Use Disorder in the Camden Opioid Research Initiative.

Pharmacogenetics (PGx) has the potential to improve opioid medication management. Here, we present patient perception data, pharmacogenetic data and medication management trends in patients with chronic pain (arm 1) and opioid use disorder (arm 2) treated at Cooper University Health Care in Camden City, NJ. Our results demonstrate that the majority of patients in both arms of the study (55% and 65%, respectively) are open to pharmacogenetic testing, and most (66% and 69%, respectively) believe that genetic testing has the potential to improve their medical care. Our results further support the potential for CYP2D6 PGx testing to inform chronic pain medication management for poor metabolizers (PMs) and ultrarapid metabolizers (UMs). Future efforts to implement PGx testing in chronic pain management, however, must address patient concerns about genetic test result access and genetic discrimination.

Attitudes on Methadone Utilization in the Emergency Department: A Physician Cross-sectional Study.

INTRODUCTION: Like buprenorphine, methadone is a life-saving medication that can be initiated in the emergency department (ED) to treat patients with an opioid use disorder (OUD). The purpose of this study was to better understand the attitudes of emergency physicians (EP) on offering methadone compared to buprenorphine to patients with OUD in the ED. METHODS: We distributed a perception survey to emergency physicians through a national professional network. RESULTS: In this study, the response rate was 18.4% (N = 141), with nearly 70% of the EPs having ordered either buprenorphine or methadone. 75% of EPs strongly or somewhat agreed that buprenorphine was an appropriate treatment for opioid withdrawal and craving, while only 28% agreed that methadone was an appropriate treatment. The perceived barriers to using buprenorphine and methadone in the ED were similar. CONCLUSION: It is essential to create interventions for EPs to overcome stigma and barriers to methadone initiation in the ED for patients with opioid use disorder. Doing so will offer additional opportunities and pathways for initiation of multiple effective medications for OUD in the ED. Subsequent outpatient treatment linkage may lead to improved treatment retention and decreased morbidity and mortality from ongoing use.

Updates on the Evaluation and Management of Caustic Exposures.

In the 2019 annual report by the American Association of Poison Control Centers, there were more than 180,000 single substance exposures involving household cleaners, making these products the second most common exposure reported to poison control centers. Little controversy exists in the general management following dermal or ocular caustic exposure. However, there still exists controversy concerning management of gastrointestinal caustic exposure. This article provides a thorough review of diagnosis, management and prevention of gastrointestinal caustic exposures and their sequelae. Hydrofluoric acid, which requires special consideration compared to other acids, is also explored.

A Low-threshold Comprehensive Shared Medical Appointment Program for Perinatal Substance Use in an Underserved Population.

OBJECTIVES: We describe retention in care, medication for opioid use disorder (MOUD) prescribing, and urine toxicology outcomes of a comprehensive perinatal shared medical appointment model that combined medication, group-based counseling, and recovery supports. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective study of program retention between 11/1/16 and 3/31/20 in pregnant and postpartum women with substance dependence or use disorder. Disengagement reasons, MOUD prescribing, and urine toxicology were abstracted from medical records. A Cox proportional hazards model was used to evaluate risk factors for program disengagement. RESULTS: Approximately 87% of patients had OUD and 80% were pregnant at the initial visit (N = 140). Retention at 3 months, 6 months, 1 year, and 2 years was approximately 86%, 78%, 66%, and 48%, respectively. Over 97% of patients were prescribed MOUD and 88% of all urine toxicology results were negative for non-prescribed opioids. Patients enrolled after initiation of wraparound services (HR 0.52, 95% CI 0.28 - 0.96) and those attending more shared medical appointments (HR 0.90, 95% CI 0.87 - 0.93) had a lower hazard of disengagement after controlling for other covariates. Loss to follow-up was the most common disengagement reason. CONCLUSIONS: A low-threshold, comprehensive perinatal shared medical appointment program had high retention rates, increased access to evidence-based MOUD, and high rates of opioid-negative urine toxicology. Participants enrolled after wraparound services began had a lower hazard of disengagement. Future research in perinatal substance use should evaluate the most optimal and cost-effective components of comprehensive programs to inform standard of care.

Injection Drug Use and Healthcare Utilization in Patients Newly Diagnosed With HIV.

OBJECTIVES: To determine recent trends in: (1) human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) diagnoses, (2) the proportion of patients newly diagnosed with HIV with injection drug use (IDU) and (3) patients' patterns of healthcare utilization in the year before diagnosis at an urban, academic medical center. METHODS: We performed a cross sectional study of patients newly diagnosed with HIV at a healthcare system in southern New Jersey between January 1st, 2014 and December 31st, 2019. Patients 18 years or older with HIV diagnosed during the study period were included. Demographics, comorbidities, HIV test results, and healthcare utilization data were collected from the electronic medical record. RESULTS: Of 192 patients newly diagnosed with HIV, 36 (19%) had documented IDU. New HIV diagnoses doubled from 22 to 47 annual cases between 2014 and 2019. The proportion of patients with newly diagnosed HIV and documented IDU increased from 9% in 2014 to 32% in 2019, chi-square test for linear trend P value = 0.001. Eighty-nine percent of patients with IDU had at least one contact with the healthcare system in the year before diagnosis compared to 63% of patients without IDU, P value 0.003. The median (interquartile range IQR) number of healthcare visits was 7 [2 - 16] for patients with IDU versus 1 [0 - 3] for patients without IDU, P < 0.001. CONCLUSIONS: We observed an increase in new HIV diagnoses with an increase in the proportion of newly diagnosed patients with IDU. Patients with newly diagnosed HIV and IDU had high rates of health care utilization in the year before diagnosis presenting an opportunity for intervention.

Unintentional cetirizine overdose causing anticholinergic syndrome.

The incidence of anticholinergic syndrome due to second generation antihistamines is infrequently reported. Largely due to their decreased affinity for central nervous system (CNS) receptors, second generation antihistamines are rarely associated with anticholinergic symptoms, though toxicity is still possible particularly when taken in excess. We report a case of a six year old boy who presented with agitation, hallucinations, fixed and dilated pupils, tachycardia, and hyperthermia consistent with anticholinergic toxicity several hours after accidental overdose of a second generation antihistamine, cetirizine. Early identification of this rare phenomenon is important not only for appropriate emergency management but also for avoidance of potentially invasive and unnecessary tests which may further increase patient morbidity.

Buprenorphine use and disparities in access among emergency department patients with opioid use disorder: A cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Buprenorphine, a partial mu-opioid agonist and kappa-opioid antagonist, is an approved treatment for opioid use disorder (OUD). Studies demonstrate that buprenorphine decreases cravings for other opioids, effectively ameliorates withdrawal symptoms, and decreases opioid overdose and mortality. However, buprenorphine remains under-utilized. Despite its low potential for misuse, research has reported wide use of non-prescribed buprenorphine, seemingly for its effectiveness in treating withdrawal and helping to maintain sobriety. We designed our study to describe patient experiences with both prescribed and non-prescribed buprenorphine usage and to identify potential disparities in buprenorphine access within a high-risk population of patients with OUD. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study conducted in the emergency department (ED) of a large inner-city university hospital from January 15, 2015, through April 30, 2018. Patients were eligible to participate in the study if they presented with opioid intoxication or after an opioid overdose and were 18 years of age or older. Research assistants administered surveys after the ED team deemed an eligible patient to be clinically sober. RESULTS: The study enrolled 423 patients. Most patients in this study were white (59.8%) and male (77.5%), with a mean age of 37.5 years. A majority of patients (58.4%) had Medicaid insurance. Of those, 15.8% had previously been on medication for opioid use disorder (MOUD) with methadone, and 16.3% received outpatient buprenorphine. Most (72.8%, 95% CI 68.6-77.0%) respondents reported having used buprenorphine at one point. Of the participants reporting prior buprenorphine use, 15.5% had either traded, shared, or sold their buprenorphine in the past. Patients who obtained non-prescribed buprenorphine generally purchased it from a dealer, took only 8 mg at a time, and paid $10 per dose. Of those patients with a history of using buprenorphine, only 3.2% reported taking buprenorphine for euphoric effects, though 45.5% of participants declined to provide a specific reason for using the drug. Patients younger than 40 were more likely than those older than 40 to have taken buprenorphine in the past (81% vs 60%, p < 0.001). Further, white patients were more likely than nonwhite patients to have both used (42% vs 31%) and been prescribed buprenorphine (46% vs 25%, p < 0.001). DISCUSSION: Familiarity with buprenorphine is high among patients with OUD, and our data show that there is a strong demand among these patients for access to legal buprenorphine-based treatment programs. However, a variety of issues hamper access to this medication. Most patients in our study reported having been to an in-patient detox or rehabilitation program, yet only 16% of patients participated in a buprenorphine-based program. Furthermore, less than half of patients surveyed (37%) received a prescription for buprenorphine, and few participants reported taking buprenorphine for euphoric effects. Our findings suggest that a major barrier exists in legally obtaining buprenorphine for treatment of OUD, and that there appear to be racial and other disparities in buprenorphine prescribing, further limiting access to patients. Buprenorphine access needs to be expanded to satisfy the unmet need for appropriate treatment of those struggling with OUD, with particular attention to older and nonwhite patients.

The Genomics of Opioid Addiction Longitudinal Study (GOALS): study design for a prospective evaluation of genetic and non-genetic factors for development of and recovery from opioid use disorder.

BACKGROUND: The opioid use disorder and overdose crisis in the United States affects public health as well as social and economic welfare. While several genetic and non-genetic risk factors for opioid use disorder have been identified, many of the genetic associations have not been independently replicated, and it is not well understood how these factors interact. This study is designed to evaluate relationships among these factors prospectively to develop future interventions to help prevent or treat opioid use disorder. METHODS: The Genomics of Opioid Addiction Longitudinal Study (GOALS) is a prospective observational study assessing the interplay of genetic and non-genetic by collecting comprehensive genetic and non-genetic information on 400 participants receiving medication for opioid use disorder. Participants will be assessed at four time points over 1 year. A saliva sample will be collected for large-scale genetic data analyses. Non-genetic assessments include validated surveys measuring addiction severity, depression, anxiety, and adverse childhood experiences, as well as treatment outcomes such as urine toxicology results, visit frequency, and number of pre and post-treatment overdoses extracted from electronic medical records. DISCUSSION: We will use these complex data to investigate the relative contributions of genetic and non-genetic risk factors to opioid use disorder and related treatment outcomes.