Mono- and Biallelic Inactivation of Huntingtin Gene in Patient-Specific Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Reveal HTT Roles in Striatal Development and Neuronal Functions.

Background: Mutations in the Huntingtin (HTT) gene cause Huntington's disease (HD), a neurodegenerative disorder. As a scaffold protein, HTT is involved in numerous cellular functions, but its normal and pathogenic functions during human forebrain development are poorly understood. Objective: To investigate the developmental component of HD, with a specific emphasis on understanding the functions of wild-type and mutant HTT alleles during forebrain neuron development in individuals carrying HD mutations. Methods: We used CRISPR/Cas9 gene-editing technology to disrupt the ATG region of the HTT gene via non-homologous end joining to produce mono- or biallelic HTT knock-out human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) clones. Results: We showed that the loss of wild-type, mutant, or both HTT isoforms does not affect the pluripotency of iPSCs or their transition into neural cells. However, we observed that HTT loss causes division impairments in forebrain neuro-epithelial cells and alters maturation of striatal projection neurons (SPNs) particularly in the acquisition of DARPP32 expression, a key functional marker of SPNs. Finally, young post-mitotic neurons derived from HTT-/- human iPSCs display cellular dysfunctions observed in adult HD neurons. Conclusions: We described a novel collection of isogenic clones with mono- and biallelic HTT inactivation that complement existing HD-hiPSC isogenic series to explore HTT functions and test therapeutic strategies in particular HTT-lowering drugs. Characterizing neural and neuronal derivatives from human iPSCs of this collection, we show evidence that HTT loss or mutation has impacts on neuro-epithelial and striatal neurons maturation, and on basal DNA damage and BDNF axonal transport in post-mitotic neurons.

A vesicular Warburg effect: Aerobic glycolysis occurs on axonal vesicles for local NAD+ recycling and transport.

In neurons, fast axonal transport (FAT) of vesicles occurs over long distances and requires constant and local energy supply for molecular motors in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). FAT is independent of mitochondrial metabolism. Indeed, the glycolytic machinery is present on vesicles and locally produces ATP, as well as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide bonded with hydrogen (NADH) and pyruvate, using glucose as a substrate. It remains unclear whether pyruvate is transferred to mitochondria from the vesicles as well as how NADH is recycled into NAD+ on vesicles for continuous glycolysis activity. The optimization of a glycolytic activity test for subcellular compartments allowed the evaluation of the kinetics of vesicular glycolysis in the brain. This revealed that glycolysis is more efficient on vesicles than in the cytosol. We also found that lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) enzymatic activity is required for effective vesicular ATP production. Indeed, inhibition of LDH or the forced degradation of pyruvate inhibited ATP production from axonal vesicles. We found LDHA rather than the B isoform to be enriched on axonal vesicles suggesting a preferential transformation of pyruvate to lactate and a concomitant recycling of NADH into NAD+ on vesicles. Finally, we found that LDHA inhibition dramatically reduces the FAT of both dense-core vesicles and synaptic vesicle precursors in a reconstituted cortico-striatal circuit on-a-chip. Together, this shows that aerobic glycolysis is required to supply energy for vesicular transport in neurons, similar to the Warburg effect.

Stretch-injury promotes microglia activation with enhanced phagocytic and synaptic stripping activities.

Microglial cells, as the primary defense line in the central nervous system, play a crucial role in responding to various mechanical signals that can trigger their activation. Despite extensive research on the impact of chemical signaling on brain cells, the understanding of mechanical signaling in microglia remains limited. To bridge this gap, we subjected microglial cells to a singular mechanical stretch and compared their responses with those induced by lipopolysaccharide treatment, a well-established chemical activator. Here we show that stretching microglial cells leads to their activation, highlighting their significant mechanosensitivity. Stretched microglial cells exhibited distinct features, including elevated levels of Iba1 protein, a denser actin cytoskeleton, and increased persistence in migration. Unlike LPS-treated microglial cells, the secretory profile of chemokines and cytokines remained largely unchanged in response to stretching, except for TNF-α. Intriguingly, a single stretch injury resulted in more compacted chromatin and DNA damage, suggesting potential long-term genomic instabilities in stretched microglia. Using compartmentalized microfluidic chambers with neuronal networks, we observed that stretched microglial cells exhibited enhanced phagocytic and synaptic stripping activities. These findings collectively suggest that stretching events can unlock the immune potential of microglial cells, contributing to the maintenance of brain tissue homeostasis following mechanical injury.

Huntingtin recruits KIF1A to transport synaptic vesicle precursors along the mouse axon to support synaptic transmission and motor skill learning.

Neurotransmitters are released at synapses by synaptic vesicles (SVs), which originate from SV precursors (SVPs) that have traveled along the axon. Because each synapse maintains a pool of SVs, only a small fraction of which are released, it has been thought that axonal transport of SVPs does not affect synaptic function. Here, studying the corticostriatal network both in microfluidic devices and in mice, we find that phosphorylation of the Huntingtin protein (HTT) increases axonal transport of SVPs and synaptic glutamate release by recruiting the kinesin motor KIF1A. In mice, constitutive HTT phosphorylation causes SV over-accumulation at synapses, increases the probability of SV release, and impairs motor skill learning on the rotating rod. Silencing KIF1A in these mice restored SV transport and motor skill learning to wild-type levels. Axonal SVP transport within the corticostriatal network thus influences synaptic plasticity and motor skill learning.

Customization of the translational complex regulates mRNA-specific translation to control CNS regeneration.

In the adult mammalian central nervous system (CNS), axons fail to regenerate spontaneously after injury because of a combination of extrinsic and intrinsic factors. Despite recent advances targeting the intrinsic regenerative properties of adult neurons, the molecular mechanisms underlying axon regeneration are not fully understood. Here, we uncover a regulatory mechanism that controls the expression of key proteins involved in regeneration at the translational level. Our results show that mRNA-specific translation is critical for promoting axon regeneration. Indeed, we demonstrate that specific ribosome-interacting proteins, such as the protein Huntingtin (HTT), selectively control the translation of a specific subset of mRNAs. Moreover, modulating the expression of these translationally regulated mRNAs is crucial for promoting axon regeneration. Altogether, our findings highlight that selective translation through the customization of the translational complex is a key mechanism of axon regeneration with major implications in the development of therapeutic strategies for CNS repair.

Mitochondrial Bcl-xL promotes brain synaptogenesis by controlling non-lethal caspase activation.

Non-lethal caspase activation (NLCA) has been linked to neurodevelopmental processes. However, how neurons control NLCA remains elusive. Here, we focused on Bcl-xL, a Bcl-2 homolog regulating caspase activation through the mitochondria. We generated a mouse model, referred to as ER-xL, in which Bcl-xL is absent in the mitochondria, yet present in the endoplasmic reticulum. Unlike bclx knockout mice that died at E13.5, ER-xL mice survived embryonic development but died post-partum because of altered feeding behavior. Enhanced caspase-3 activity was observed in the brain and the spinal cord white matter, but not the gray matter. No increase in cell death was observed in ER-xL cortical neurons, suggesting that the observed caspase-3 activation was apoptosis-independent. ER-xL neurons displayed increased caspase-3 activity in the neurites, resulting in impaired axon arborescence and synaptogenesis. Together, our findings suggest that mitochondrial Bcl-xL finely tunes caspase-3 through Drp-1-dependent mitochondrial fission, which is critical to neural network design.

Huntingtin regulates calcium fluxes in skeletal muscle.

The expression of the Huntingtin protein, well known for its involvement in the neurodegenerative Huntington's disease, has been confirmed in skeletal muscle. The impact of HTT deficiency was studied in human skeletal muscle cell lines and in a mouse model with inducible and muscle-specific HTT deletion. Characterization of calcium fluxes in the knock-out cell lines demonstrated a reduction in excitation-contraction (EC) coupling, related to an alteration in the coupling between the dihydropyridine receptor and the ryanodine receptor, and an increase in the amount of calcium stored within the sarcoplasmic reticulum, linked to the hyperactivity of store-operated calcium entry (SOCE). Immunoprecipitation experiments demonstrated an association of HTT with junctophilin 1 (JPH1) and stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1), both providing clues on the functional effects of HTT deletion on calcium fluxes. Characterization of muscle strength and muscle anatomy of the muscle-specific HTT-KO mice demonstrated that HTT deletion induced moderate muscle weakness and mild muscle atrophy associated with histological abnormalities, similar to the phenotype observed in tubular aggregate myopathy. Altogether, this study points toward the hypotheses of the involvement of HTT in EC coupling via its interaction with JPH1, and on SOCE via its interaction with JPH1 and/or STIM1.

Controlled Tau Cleavage in Cells Reveals Abnormal Localizations of Tau Fragments.

In several forms of dementia, such as Alzheimer's disease, the cytoskeleton-associated protein tau undergoes proteolysis, giving rise to fragments that have a toxic impact on neuronal homeostasis. How these fragments interact with cellular structures, in particular with the cytoskeleton, is currently incompletely understood. Here, we developed a method, derived from a Tobacco Etch Virus (TEV) protease system, to induce controlled cleavage of tau at specific sites. Five tau proteins containing specific TEV recognition sites corresponding to pathological proteolytic sites were engineered, and tagged with GFP at one end and mCherry at the other. After a controlled cleavage to produce GFP-N-terminal and C-terminal-mCherry fragments, we followed the fate of tau fragments in cells. Our results showed that whole engineered tau proteins associate with the cytoskeleton similarly to the non-modified tau, whereas tau fragments adopted different localizations with respect to the actin and microtubule cytoskeletons. These distinct localizations were confirmed by expressing each separate fragment in cells. Some cleavages - in particular cleavages at amino-acid positions 124 or 256 - displayed a certain level of cellular toxicity, with an unusual relocalization of the N-terminal fragments to the nucleus. Based on the data presented here, inducible cleavage of tau by the TEV protease appears to be a valuable tool to reproduce tau fragmentation in cells and study the resulting consequences on cell physiology.

Pridopidine rescues BDNF/TrkB trafficking dynamics and synapse homeostasis in a Huntington disease brain-on-a-chip model.

Huntington disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by polyglutamine-encoding CAG repeat expansion in the huntingtin (HTT) gene. HTT is involved in the axonal transport of vesicles containing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). In HD, diminished BDNF transport leads to reduced BDNF delivery to the striatum, contributing to striatal and cortical neuronal death. Pridopidine is a selective and potent sigma-1 receptor (S1R) agonist currently in clinical development for HD. The S1R is located at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-mitochondria interface, where it regulates key cellular pathways commonly impaired in neurodegenerative diseases. We used a microfluidic device that reconstitutes the corticostriatal network, allowing the investigation of presynaptic dynamics, synaptic morphology and transmission, and postsynaptic signaling. Culturing primary neurons from the HD mouse model HdhCAG140/+ provides a "disease-on-a-chip" platform ideal for investigating pathogenic mechanisms and drug activity. Pridopidine rescued the trafficking of BDNF and TrkB resulting in an increased neurotrophin signaling at the synapse. This increased the capacity of HD neurons to release glutamate and restored homeostasis at the corticostriatal synapse. These data suggest that pridopidine enhances the availability of corticostriatal BDNF via S1R activation, leading to neuroprotective effects.

A pathogenic proteolysis-resistant huntingtin isoform induced by an antisense oligonucleotide maintains huntingtin function.

Huntington's disease (HD) is a late-onset neurological disorder for which therapeutics are not available. Its key pathological mechanism involves the proteolysis of polyglutamine-expanded (polyQ-expanded) mutant huntingtin (mHTT), which generates N-terminal fragments containing polyQ, a key contributor to HD pathogenesis. Interestingly, a naturally occurring spliced form of HTT mRNA with truncated exon 12 encodes an HTT (HTTΔ12) with a deletion near the caspase-6 cleavage site. In this study, we used a multidisciplinary approach to characterize the therapeutic potential of targeting HTT exon 12. We show that HTTΔ12 was resistant to caspase-6 cleavage in both cell-free and tissue lysate assays. However, HTTΔ12 retained overall biochemical and structural properties similar to those of wt-HTT. We generated mice in which HTT exon 12 was truncated and found that the canonical exon 12 was dispensable for the main physiological functions of HTT, including embryonic development and intracellular trafficking. Finally, we pharmacologically induced HTTΔ12 using the antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) QRX-704. QRX-704 showed predictable pharmacology and efficient biodistribution. In addition, it was stable for several months and inhibited pathogenic proteolysis. Furthermore, QRX-704 treatments resulted in a reduction of HTT aggregation and an increase in dendritic spine count. Thus, ASO-induced HTT exon 12 splice switching from HTT may provide an alternative therapeutic strategy for HD.

Spatiotemporal reorganization of corticostriatal networks encodes motor skill learning.

Motor skill learning requires the activity of the dorsal striatum, with a differential global implication of the dorsomedial and dorsolateral territories. We investigate here whether and how specific striatal neurons encode the acquisition and consolidation of a motor skill. Using ex vivo two-photon calcium imaging after rotarod training, we report that highly active (HA) striatal populations arise from distinct spatiotemporal reorganization in the dorsomedial (DMS) and dorsolateral (DLS) striatum networks and are correlated with learning performance. The DMS overall activity decreases in early training, with few and sparsely distributed HA cells, while the DLS shows a progressive and long-lasting formation of HA cell clusters. These reorganizations result from reinforcement of synaptic connections to the DMS and anatomical rearrangements to the DLS. Targeted silencing of DMS or DLS HA cells with the cFos-TRAP strategy strongly impairs individual performance. Our data reveal that discrete domains of striatal populations encode acquisition and long-lasting retention of a motor skill.

Regulation of sensorimotor gating via Disc1/Huntingtin-mediated Bdnf transport in the cortico-striatal circuit.

Sensorimotor information processing underlies normal cognitive and behavioral traits and has classically been evaluated through prepulse inhibition (PPI) of a startle reflex. PPI is a behavioral dimension deregulated in several neurological and psychiatric disorders, yet the mechanisms underlying the cross-diagnostic nature of PPI deficits across these conditions remain to be understood. To identify circuitry mechanisms for PPI, we performed circuitry recording over the prefrontal cortex and striatum, two brain regions previously implicated in PPI, using wild-type (WT) mice compared to Disc1-locus-impairment (LI) mice, a model representing neuropsychiatric conditions. We demonstrated that the corticostriatal projection regulates neurophysiological responses during the PPI testing in WT, whereas these circuitry responses were disrupted in Disc1-LI mice. Because our biochemical analyses revealed attenuated brain-derived neurotrophic factor (Bdnf) transport along the corticostriatal circuit in Disc1-LI mice, we investigated the potential role of Bdnf in this circuitry for regulation of PPI. Virus-mediated delivery of Bdnf into the striatum rescued PPI deficits in Disc1-LI mice. Pharmacologically augmenting Bdnf transport by chronic lithium administration, partly via phosphorylation of Huntingtin (Htt) serine-421 and its integration into the motor machinery, restored striatal Bdnf levels and rescued PPI deficits in Disc1-LI mice. Furthermore, reducing the cortical Bdnf expression negated this rescuing effect of lithium, confirming the key role of Bdnf in lithium-mediated PPI rescuing. Collectively, the data suggest that striatal Bdnf supply, collaboratively regulated by Htt and Disc1 along the corticostriatal circuit, is involved in sensorimotor gating, highlighting the utility of dimensional approach in investigating pathophysiological mechanisms across neuropsychiatric disorders.

Calcineurin and huntingtin form a calcium-sensing machinery that directs neurotrophic signals to the nucleus.

When a neurotrophin binds at the presynapse, it sends survival signals all the way to the nucleus on signaling endosomes. These endosomes fuel their own journey with on-board glycolysis­but how is that journey initiated and maintained? Using microfluidic devices and mice, we find that the calcium released upon brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) binding to its receptor, tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB), is sensed by calcineurin on the cytosolic face of the endosome. Calcineurin dephosphorylates huntingtin, the BDNF scaffold, which sets the endosome moving in a retrograde direction. In an in vitro reconstituted microtubule transport system, controlled calcium uncaging prompts purified vesicles to move to the microtubule minus end. We observed similar retrograde waves of TrkA- and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-bearing endosomes. Signaling endosomes in neurons thus carry not only their own fuel, but their own navigational system.

ATP-citrate lyase promotes axonal transport across species.

Microtubule (MT)-based transport is an evolutionary conserved process finely tuned by posttranslational modifications. Among them, α-tubulin acetylation, primarily catalyzed by a vesicular pool of α-tubulin N-acetyltransferase 1 (Atat1), promotes the recruitment and processivity of molecular motors along MT tracks. However, the mechanism that controls Atat1 activity remains poorly understood. Here, we show that ATP-citrate lyase (Acly) is enriched in vesicles and provide Acetyl-Coenzyme-A (Acetyl-CoA) to Atat1. In addition, we showed that Acly expression is reduced upon loss of Elongator activity, further connecting Elongator to Atat1 in a pathway regulating α-tubulin acetylation and MT-dependent transport in projection neurons, across species. Remarkably, comparable defects occur in fibroblasts from Familial Dysautonomia (FD) patients bearing an autosomal recessive mutation in the gene coding for the Elongator subunit ELP1. Our data may thus shine light on the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying FD.

Increasing brain palmitoylation rescues behavior and neuropathology in Huntington disease mice.

Huntington disease (HD) damages the corticostriatal circuitry in large part by impairing transport of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). We hypothesized that improving vesicular transport of BDNF could slow or prevent disease progression. We therefore performed selective proteomic analysis of vesicles transported within corticostriatal projecting neurons followed by in silico screening and identified palmitoylation as a pathway that could restore defective huntingtin-dependent trafficking. Using a synchronized trafficking assay and an HD network-on-a-chip, we found that increasing brain palmitoylation via ML348, which inhibits the palmitate-removing enzyme acyl-protein thioesterase 1 (APT1), restores axonal transport, synapse homeostasis, and survival signaling to wild-type levels without toxicity. In human HD induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cortical neurons, ML348 increased BDNF trafficking. In HD knock-in mice, it efficiently crossed the blood-brain barrier to restore palmitoylation levels and reverse neuropathology, locomotor deficits, and anxio-depressive behaviors. APT1 and its inhibitor ML348 thus hold therapeutic interest for HD.

Huntingtin-mediated axonal transport requires arginine methylation by PRMT6.

The huntingtin (HTT) protein transports various organelles, including vesicles containing neurotrophic factors, from embryonic development throughout life. To better understand how HTT mediates axonal transport and why this function is disrupted in Huntington's disease (HD), we study vesicle-associated HTT and find that it is dimethylated at a highly conserved arginine residue (R118) by the protein arginine methyltransferase 6 (PRMT6). Without R118 methylation, HTT associates less with vesicles, anterograde trafficking is diminished, and neuronal death ensues-very similar to what occurs in HD. Inhibiting PRMT6 in HD cells and neurons exacerbates mutant HTT (mHTT) toxicity and impairs axonal trafficking, whereas overexpressing PRMT6 restores axonal transport and neuronal viability, except in the presence of a methylation-defective variant of mHTT. In HD flies, overexpressing PRMT6 rescues axonal defects and eclosion. Arginine methylation thus regulates HTT-mediated vesicular transport along the axon, and increasing HTT methylation could be of therapeutic interest for HD.

Recreating mouse cortico-hippocampal neuronal circuit in microfluidic devices to study BDNF axonal transport upon glucocorticoid treatment.

BDNF levels are reduced in the chronically stressed brain, in the area of hippocampus. Part of the hippocampal BDNF is provided by neuronal projection of the entorhinal cortex. Studying the cortico-hippocampal transport of BDNF in vivo is technically difficult. Here, we describe a protocol that reproduces mouse cortico-hippocampal circuit in vitro by plating neurons on the microfluidic devices and infecting the neurons with virus-encoding BDNF-mCherry, which allows investigation of the effects of elevated corticosterone levels on BDNF axonal transport. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Agasse et al. (2020).

The Arp1/11 minifilament of dynactin primes the endosomal Arp2/3 complex.

Dendritic actin networks develop from a first actin filament through branching by the Arp2/3 complex. At the surface of endosomes, the WASH complex activates the Arp2/3 complex and interacts with the capping protein for unclear reasons. Here, we show that the WASH complex interacts with dynactin and uncaps it through its FAM21 subunit. In vitro, the uncapped Arp1/11 minifilament elongates an actin filament, which then primes the WASH-induced Arp2/3 branching reaction. In dynactin-depleted cells or in cells where the WASH complex is reconstituted with a FAM21 mutant that cannot uncap dynactin, formation of branched actin at the endosomal surface is impaired. Our results reveal the importance of the WASH complex in coordinating two complexes containing actin-related proteins.

Brain energy rescue: an emerging therapeutic concept for neurodegenerative disorders of ageing.

The brain requires a continuous supply of energy in the form of ATP, most of which is produced from glucose by oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria, complemented by aerobic glycolysis in the cytoplasm. When glucose levels are limited, ketone bodies generated in the liver and lactate derived from exercising skeletal muscle can also become important energy substrates for the brain. In neurodegenerative disorders of ageing, brain glucose metabolism deteriorates in a progressive, region-specific and disease-specific manner - a problem that is best characterized in Alzheimer disease, where it begins presymptomatically. This Review discusses the status and prospects of therapeutic strategies for countering neurodegenerative disorders of ageing by improving, preserving or rescuing brain energetics. The approaches described include restoring oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis, increasing insulin sensitivity, correcting mitochondrial dysfunction, ketone-based interventions, acting via hormones that modulate cerebral energetics, RNA therapeutics and complementary multimodal lifestyle changes.