Neuronal MCP-1 expression in response to remote nerve injury.

Direct injury of the brain is followed by inflammatory responses regulated by cytokines and chemoattractants secreted from resident glia and invading cells of the peripheral immune system. In contrast, after remote lesion of the central nervous system, exemplified here by peripheral transection or crush of the facial and hypoglossal nerve, the locally observed inflammatory activation is most likely triggered by the damaged cells themselves, that is, the injured neurons. The authors investigated the expression of the chemoattractants monocyte chemoattractant protein MCP-1, regulation on activation normal T-cell expressed and secreted (RANTES), and interferon-gamma inducible protein IP10 after peripheral nerve lesion of the facial and hypoglossal nuclei. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry revealed an induction of neuronal MCP-1 expression within 6 hours postoperation, reaching a peak at 3 days and remaining up-regulated for up to 6 weeks. MCP-1 expression was almost exclusively confined to neurons but was also present on a few scattered glial cells. The authors found no alterations in the level of expression and cellular distribution of RANTES or IP10, which were both confined to neurons. Protein expression of the MCP-1 receptor CCR2 did not change. MCP-1, expressed by astrocytes and activated microglia, has been shown to be crucial for monocytic, or T-cell chemoattraction, or both. Accordingly, expression of MCP-1 by neurons and its corresponding receptor in microglia suggests that this chemokine is involved in neuron and microglia interaction.

Expression of alpha-synuclein in non-apoptotic, slowly degenerating facial motoneurones.

The discovery that missense mutations in the alpha-synuclein gene represent a rare genetic cause of Parkinson's disease (PD) has had significant impact on the development of research into neurodegenerative disorders. It is becoming increasingly clear that alpha-synuclein plays a central role in the pathological process, which causes Lewy body formation and neurodegeneration in PD. Importantly, there is evidence to suggest that mutated alpha-synuclein is toxic to both nerve cells and glia. However, the regulation and function of wild-type alpha-synuclein are as yet ill defined. Using the facial nerve axotomy model, we have addressed the question whether the expression of alpha-synuclein in nerve cells may change in response to injury. We were particularly interested in testing the hypothesis that the severity of neuronal injury had an effect on alpha-synuclein metabolism. Facial nerve cut and crush, respectively, were performed in adult rats where normal facial motoneurones do not express alpha-synuclein. Following axotomy, a subset of facial motoneurones newly expressed high levels of alpha-synuclein immunoreactivity in their cell body and, occasionally, their nucleus. Significantly more nerve cells were labelled following facial nerve transection than following facial nerve crush. Confocal microscopy revealed a granular pattern of alpha-synuclein aggregation in degenerating nerve cells. Interestingly, the observed cell death phenotype was clearly non-apoptotic and developed over days or weeks rather than hours. Thus, axotomy of adult rat facial motoneurones triggers de novo expression of alpha-synuclein and this expression is associated with a non-apoptotic, slow form a neurodegeneration. In addition, the extent of alpha-synuclein expression is related to the severity of neuronal injury.

Neuronal FasL induces cell death of encephalitogenic T lymphocytes.

Apoptosis of inflammatory cells plays a crucial role in the recovery from autoimmune CNS disease. However, the underlying mechanisms of apoptosis induction are as yet ill-defined. Here we report on the neuronal expression of FasL and its potential function in inducing T-cell apoptosis. Using a combination of facial nerve axotomy and passive transfer encephalomyelitis, the fate of CD4+ encephalitogenic T cells engineered to express the gene for green fluorescent protein was followed. FasL gene transcripts and FasL protein were detected in neurons by in sit-hybridization and immunohistochemistry. T cells infiltrating preferentially the injured brain parenchyma were found in the immediate vicinity of FasL expressing neurons and even inside their perikarya. In contrast to neurons, T cells rapidly underwent apoptosis. In co-cultures of hippocampal nerve cells and CD4 T lymphocytes, we confirmed expression of FasL in neurons and concomitant induction of T-cell death. Antibodies blocking neuronal FasL were shown to have a protective effect on T-cell survival. Thus, FasL expression by neurons in neuroinflammatory diseases may constitute a pivotal mechanism underlying apoptosis of encephalitogenic T cells.

Peripheral but not central axotomy induces changes in Janus kinases (JAK) and signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT).

Nerve injury leads to the release of a number of cytokines which have been shown to play an important role in cellular activation after peripheral nerve injury. The members of the signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) gene family are the main mediators in the signal transduction pathway of cytokines. After phosphorylation, STAT proteins are transported into the nucleus and exhibit transcriptional activity. Following axotomy in rat regenerating facial and hypoglossal neurons, a transient increase of mRNA for JAK2, JAK3, STAT1, STAT3 and STAT5 was detected using in situ hybridization and semi-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Of the investigated STAT molecules, only STAT3 protein was significantly increased. In addition, activation of STAT3 by phosphorylation on position Tyr705 and enhanced nuclear translocation was found within 3 h in neurons and after 1 day in astrocytes. Unexpectedly, STAT3 tyrosine phosphorylation was obvious for more than 3 months. In contrast, none of these changes was found in response to axotomy of non-regenerating Clarke's nucleus neurons, although all the investigated models express c-Jun and growth-associated protein-43 (GAP-43) in response to axonal injury. Increased expression of Janus kinase (JAK) and STAT molecules after peripheral nerve transection suggests changes in the responsiveness of the neurons to signalling molecules. STAT3 as a transcription factor, which is expressed early and is activated persistently until the time of reinnervation, might be involved in the switch from the physiological gene expression to an 'alternative program' activated only after peripheral nerve injury.

The interaction and colocalization of Sam68 with the splicing-associated factor YT521-B in nuclear dots is regulated by the Src family kinase p59(fyn).

Alternative pre-mRNA splicing patterns can change an extracellular stimulus, but the signaling pathways leading to these changes are still poorly characterized. Here, we describe a tyrosine-phosphorylated nuclear protein, YT521-B, and show that it interacts with the nuclear transcriptosomal component scaffold attachment factor B, and the 68-kDa Src substrate associated during mitosis, Sam68. Northern blot analysis demonstrated ubiquitous expression, but detailed RNA in situ analysis revealed cell type specificity in the brain. YT521-B protein is localized in the nucleoplasm and concentrated in 5-20 large nuclear dots. Deletion analysis demonstrated that the formation of these dots depends on the presence of the amino-terminal glutamic acid-rich domain and the carboxyl-terminal glutamic acid/arginine-rich region. We show that the latter comprises an important protein-protein interaction domain. The Src family kinase p59(fyn)-mediated tyrosine phosphorylation of Sam68 negatively regulates its association with YT521-B, and overexpression of p59(fyn) dissolves nuclear dots containing YT521-B. In vivo splicing assays demonstrated that YT521-B modulates alternative splice site selection in a concentration-dependent manner. Together, our data indicate that YT521-B and Sam68 may be part of a signal transduction pathway that influences splice site selection.

Semiquantitative analysis of low levels of mRNA expression from small amounts of brain tissue by nonradioactive reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction.

We have developed an easy and fast method to semiquantify low levels of mRNA from small amounts of brain tissues based on nonradioactive reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The regulation of mRNA for the growth associated protein GAP-43/B-50 and the homeodomain protein islet-1 was examined in the facial nucleus of the rat after a unilateral transection of the nerve. In both cases a similar sensitivity for radioactive and nonradioactive RT-PCR methods was found. The expression of the housekeeping gene, cyclophilin A was used to normalize total mRNA amounts and PCR conditions. After amplification the PCR products were separated electrophoretically on polyacrylamide gels. For nonradioactive semiquantification gels were stained with ethidium bromide and recorded using a CCD camera and transillumination. The recordings were evaluated with specialized software. Using nonradioactive RT-PCR, the increase in GAP-43/B-50 mRNA in response to axotomy was easily detectable in the small volume of tissue obtained from the facial nucleus. In contrast, the low expression of islet-1 mRNA made it necessary to develop a two-step amplification procedure in order to provide a reliable semiquantitative analysis. The procedure included preamplification of the cDNA and subsequent purification of the cDNA. Using this method, the down-regulation of islet-1 could be demonstrated with a similar sensitivity to that previously shown with radioactive RT-PCR.

Regulation of the LIM-type homeobox gene islet-1 during neuronal regeneration.

Peripheral nerve lesion leads to prominent changes in gene expression in the injured neurons, a process co-ordinated by transcription factors. During development the transcription factor islet-1 plays an important role in differentiation and axogenesis. In axotomized adult neurons a process of axonal regrowth and re-establishment of the neuronal function has to be activated. Thus, we studied changes in the expression of islet-1 after axotomy, under the assumption that frequently developmentally regulated factors are reactivated during neuronal regeneration. We investigated the regulation of islet-1 expression with (i) semi-quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and (ii) confocal microscopy in combination with quantitative image analysis. Islet-1 expression was suprisingly down-regulated in motoneurons and sensory neurons of adult rats after axotomy. A maximal reduction in the expression level was reached between day 3 and 7 after nerve lesion, a period of extensive axonal sprouting. Islet-1 expression attained control level at day 42 after lesion, a time-point at which target reinnervation takes place. The decreased expression of islet-1 during axonal regeneration is in contrast to the high levels of islet-1 expression during axogenesis in the developing nervous system. Thus, the proposed role of islet-1 in axonal target finding during axogenesis could not be confirmed in the adult rat. The observed down-regulation of islet-1 rather suggests that the activation of downstream genes important for the embryonic pattern of axonal path finding is suppressed. Moreover, in the adult nervous system islet-1 might be one of the transcription factors regulating the expression of proteins significant for the physiological intact neuronal phenotype.

GAP-43 (B-50) and C-Jun are up-regulated in axotomized neurons of Clarke's nucleus after spinal cord injury in the adult rat.

The growth-associated protein GAP-43 (B-50) and the transcription factor C-Jun are involved in regeneration of the injured nervous system. In this study, we investigated the possibility of the induction of GAP-43 and C-Jun in axotomized neurons of Clarke's nucleus (CN) in adult rats, of which a large population undergoes degeneration several weeks after a low thoracic lateral funiculotomy of the spinal cord. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry revealed a transient up-regulation of GAP-43 mRNA, C-Jun protein, and its activated, phosphorylated form, peaking around 7 days after injury in preferentially large diameter CN-neurons ipsilateral and caudal to the lesion. Our results document that some populations of axotomized central nervous system neurons, similar to axotomized regenerating neurons of the peripheral nervous system, can up-regulate GAP-43 and C-Jun, even if they are destined to degenerate. This might reflect a transient regenerative capacity, which fails over time.

Alternative splicing determines the intracellular localization of the novel nuclear protein Nop30 and its interaction with the splicing factor SRp30c.

We report on the molecular cloning of a novel human cDNA by its interaction with the splicing factor SRp30c in a yeast two-hybrid screen. This cDNA is predominantly expressed in muscle and encodes a protein that is present in the nucleoplasm and concentrated in nucleoli. It was therefore termed Nop30 (nucleolar protein of 30 kDa). We have also identified a related cDNA with a different carboxyl terminus. Sequencing of the NOP gene demonstrated that both cDNAs are generated by alternative 5' splice site usage from a single gene that consists of four exons, spans at least 1800 nucleotides, and is located on chromosome 16q21-q23. The alternative 5' splice site usage introduces a frameshift creating two different carboxyl termini. The carboxyl terminus of Nop30 is rich in serines and arginines and has been found to target the protein into the nucleus, whereas its isoform is characterized by proline/glutamic acid dipeptides in its carboxyl terminus and is predominantly found in the cytosol. Interaction studies in yeast, in vitro protein interaction assays, and co-immunoprecipitations demonstrated that Nop30 multimerizes and binds to the RS domain of SRp30c but not to other splicing factors tested. Overexpression of Nop30 changes alternative exon usage in preprotachykinin and SRp20 reporter genes, suggesting that Nop30 influences alternative splice site selection in vivo.

An ovine lymphocyte antigen is associated with reduced faecal egg counts in four-month-old lambs following natural, predominantly Ostertagia circumcincta infection.

Ovine lymphocyte antigen is associated with reduced faecal egg counts in 4-month-old lambs following natural, predominantly Ostertagia circumcincta infection. International Journal for Parasitology 26: 423-428. Ten lymphocyte antigens were defined in a flock of Scottish Blackface sheep known to be naturally exposed to infection with Ostertagia circumcincta. Population and family studies suggested that the 10 antigens were products of class I loci. Antigen G13br was in linkage disequilibrium with allele g2 at the DRB1 locus. The g2 allele has previously been associated with reduced faecal egg counts in a different crop of lambs from the same farm. In this study antigen G13br was also associated with a reduction in faecal egg counts. The results provide partial confirmation of the role of the major histocompatibility complex in resistance to natural, predominantly O. circumcincta infection.

An ovine major histocompatibility complex DRB1 allele is associated with low faecal egg counts following natural, predominantly Ostertagia circumcincta infection.

Infection with Ostertagia circumcincta is a major constraint on sheep production in temperate areas of the world. A potential control strategy is the use of genetically resistant sheep. Therefore we examined the association between MHC-DRB1 alleles and faecal egg counts following natural, predominately O. circumcincta infection in a flock of Scottish Blackface sheep. Nineteen DRB1 alleles were identified by a combination of variation in the length of simple repetitive sequences within the intron between exons 2 and 3 and hybridisation of selected oligonucleotides to polymorphisms within exon 2. Faecal samples were taken from 200 lambs from one to six months of age at intervals of 4 weeks. Genetic effects were strongest at 6 months of age. Least-squares analysis indicated that substitution of the most common allele (I) by allele G2 would result in a 58-fold reduction in faecal egg counts in 6-month-old lambs and a 22-fold reduction in 5-month-old lambs. These results suggest that the major histocompatibility complex plays an important role in the development of resistance to O. circumcincta.

The bovine interleukin-4 gene: genomic organization, localization, and evolution.

Interleukin-4 (IL4) is involved in the immune response to certain parasites and possibly in the development of some atopic diseases since it triggers the T helper 2 lymphocyte response. Therefore, IL4 is a candidate gene, for example, for disease association studies and gene mapping. We isolated bovine IL4 cosmids and determined the genomic organization. Fragments carrying the exons as well as 725 base pairs (bp) from the 5' flanking and 190 bp from the 3' flanking region were cloned and sequenced. The first 481 base pairs of the 5' flanking region, including the putative promoter sequences, are surprisingly similar (92%) between cattle and human. In addition, we cloned and sequenced a mixed [(t/g)a]m(ca)n repeat located approximately 35 kilobases upstream from the IL4 gene. It showed seven repeat length alleles in a limited number of animals. The IL4 gene has been assigned to 7q15-q21 by fluorescence in situ hybridization in cattle. Evolutionary aspects are discussed on the basis of sequence data as well as interspecies chromosomal homologies.

Exonic MHC-DRB polymorphisms and intronic simple repeat sequences: Janus' faces of DNA sequence evolution.

The evolution of highly polymorphic gene loci is following routes that cannot be extrapolated from the existing knowledge of single copy genes. In addition, interpreting the evolution of the most polymorphic loci in vertebrates requires a plethora of data from different taxa. We evaluate here the rules for the evolution of Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC-)DRB genes recently established in humans and other primates on the basis of sequences from several artiodactyl species. MHC genes encode essential molecules for self/altered-self/non-self discrimination in the interaction of the organism with its environment. The necessity to effectively present various different antigens to immunocompetent cells causes positive selection pressure on the variability of these genes in the population. Artiodactyls represent the third mammalian order in which this phenomenon was evidence independently. A further incentive to investigate also the surroundings of MHC-DRB loci was the presence of a particular repetitive sequence stretch in the vicinity of the polymorphic exon--in addition to the evolutionarily old alleles, ancient polymorphisms and the mechanisms for their generation and/or maintenance. Besides their utility for indirect gene diagnosis (MHC-DRB typing), the closely linked stretches of simple repetitive DNA in the neighborhood of the highly polymorphic MHC-DRB genes are also interesting remains of the evolutionary history. Evolutionary development is different in genetically inert intronic DNA compared to the exonic counterparts, despite their close vicinity. The persistence of these simple repeats over nearly 100 million years in one location preserving the same basic motif structure is startling. Indirect evidence is weighed that biological meaning should be considered for these elements. The combined analysis of the polymorphic DRB genes and the (highly variable but persistent) simple repeat stretches deepen our understanding of the complexities within a unique genomic compartment encoding essential molecules for self/non-self differentiation in the interaction of the organism with its environment.

Cloning and sequencing of expressed DRB genes of the red deer (Cervus elaphus) Mhc.

The expressed major histocompatibility complex (Mhc) class II DRB genes of 50 unrelated deer were examined by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, cloning, and sequencing of DRB exon 2. Deer, like other mammals, have at least one highly polymorphic Mhc class II DRB gene. Thirty-four different sequences were identified. Most of the variation in amino acid composition occurred at positions that have been shown to form the peptide binding site (PBS). Eighteen deer-specific substitutions were found, 11 of these occurred in the PBS. Significantly higher rates of replacement substitutions than silent substitutions were found in the deer sequences, indicating strong positive selection pressure for diversity in DRB sequences. Between one and four DRB sequences were found per deer. Inheritance of these sequences in pedigrees showed Mendelian segregation with up to two expressed DRB genes per haplotype. Sheep are the only other ruminant in which the presence of more than one expressed DRB gene has been demonstrated. Phylogenetic trees were constructed in an attempt to assign the deer DRB sequences to specific loci, but no clear segregation of the DRB sequences for different loci was found. It would seem likely that sequence exchange between the loci has occurred. As has been shown in other species, the alpha-helix and beta-sheet regions of exon 2 appeared to have different evolutionary histories.

Interdependent MHC-DRB exon-plus-intron evolution in artiodactyls.

Exon 2 sequences of an expressed MHC-DRB locus from sheep were examined for polymorphisms in both the antigen-binding regions and the adjacent intronic mixed simple tandem repeat. Twenty-one novel exon 2 Ovar-DRB alleles were identified. Short nucleotide motifs are extensively shared between certain exon 2 regions of Ovar-DRB alleles. The simple repeat variations, the number of different amino acids at usually polymorphic sites, and the number of silent substitutions were reduced in the intraspecies analyses of sheep DRB sequences, compared with those of cattle and goats. It was paradoxical that the abundance of different sheep alleles was similar to that of cattle and goats. This paradox may be explained by postulating a relatively small number of "ancient" alleles, with the present-day Ovar-DRB alleles being generated by reciprocal exchange of nucleotide motifs. At the antigen-binding sites, new combinations of amino acids were maintained in Ovar-DRB alleles by strong positive selection. In sheep--and less pronounced in goats and cattle--the DRB alleles can be divided into two groups. In one group, silent substitutions are increased when compared with the other. This suggests separate evolutionary pathways for certain groups of DRB alleles within a species. The simple repetitive sequences are also discussed with respect to the evolution of DRB alleles.

The analysis of simple repeat loci as applied in evolutionary and behavioral sciences.

This chapter describes several aspects of tandemly organized, simple repetitive DNA sequences and their usefulness for genetic relationship analyses. After introducing the structure, the evolution and the biological meaning of such target sequences in a particularly well-studied gene, we discuss oligonucleotide probes for generating individual specific multilocus banding patterns. Thus, oligonucleotide fingerprinting allows to approach novel problems in behavioral sciences. Here, we use a passerine bird, the great tit (Parus major) as an example. Finally, genomic fingerprinting is compared to sensitive amplification methods requiring less DNA. Advantages and shortcomings of these techniques need to be evaluated in the context of the biological question(s) asked and, above all, the quality and quantity of the starting material.

Vb6 T-cell receptor elements in artiodactyls: conservation and germline polymorphisms.

By use of primers specific for human T-cell receptor (Tcr) Vb6 gene elements, a typing system for Tcr Vb variability in several artiodactyl species has been established. The amplified polymorphic locus is homologous to the human Vb6 gene element. Like the human counterpart, the artiodactyl Vb6 element contains a polymorphic intronic simple (gt)n repeat stretch. Extensive length polymorphism of this simple repeat sequence in some artiodactyls should allow efficient association studies in a multiplex approach, especially including MHC class II genes. On the protein level the Vb regions display little variability in the inter-species comparison among artiodactyls. The amino acid substitutions are not concentrated in the putative complementarity determining regions, suggesting evolutionary conservation. In addition, the simple repetitive element has been preserved in the same genomic location for more than 7 x 10(7) years. Similar evolutionary persistence has already been demonstrated for a (gt)n(ga)m repeat stretch in the second intron of the MHC-DRB locus. The reasons for these parallel developments in evolution are so far not clear, but they may point to a biological meaning if not function of the intronic simple repeat element.

The paradox of MHC-DRB exon/intron evolution: alpha-helix and beta-sheet encoding regions diverge while hypervariable intronic simple repeats coevolve with beta-sheet codons.

Twenty-one different caprine and 13 ovine MHC-DRB exon 2 sequences were determined including part of the adjacent introns containing simple repetitive (gt)n(ga)m elements. The positions for highly polymorphic DRB amino acids vary slightly among ungulates and other mammals. From man and mouse to ungulates the basic (gt)n(ga)m structure is fixed in evolution for 7 x 10(7) years whereas ample variations exist in the tandem (gt)n and (ga)m dinucleotides and especially their "degenerated" derivatives. Phylogenetic trees for the alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets of the ungulate DRB sequences suggest different evolutionary histories. In hoofed animals as well as in humans DRB beta-sheet encoding sequences and adjacent intronic repeats can be assembled into virtually identical groups suggesting coevolution of noncoding as well as coding DNA. In contrast alpha-helices and C-terminal parts of the first DRB domain evolve distinctly. In the absence of a defined mechanism causing specific, site-directed mutations, double-recombination or gene-conversion-like events would readily explain this fact. The role of the intronic simple (gt)n(ga)m repeat is discussed with respect to these genetic exchange mechanisms during evolution.