Potent antitumor activity of anti-HER2 antibody-topoisomerase I inhibitor conjugate based on self-immolative dendritic dimeric-linker.

Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) are a rapidly expanding class of anticancer therapeutics, with 14 ADCs already approved worldwide. We developed unique linker technologies for the bioconjugation of drug molecules with controlled-release applications. We synthesized cathepsin-cleavable ADCs using a dimeric prodrug system based on a self-immolative dendritic scaffold, resulting in a high drug-antibody ratio (DAR) with the potential to reach 16 payloads due to its dendritic structure, increased stability in the circulation and efficient release profile of a highly cytotoxic payload at the targeted site. Using our novel cleavable linker technologies, we conjugated the anti-human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (anti-HER2) antibody, trastuzumab, with topoisomerase I inhibitors, exatecan or belotecan. The newly synthesized ADCs were tested in vitro on mammary carcinoma cells overexpressing human HER2, demonstrating a substantial inhibitory effect on the proliferation of HER2-positive cells. Importantly, a single dose of our trastuzumab-based ADCs administered in vivo to mice bearing HER2-positive tumors, showed a dose-dependent inhibition of tumor growth and survival benefit, with the most potent antitumor effects observed at 10 mg/kg, which resulted in complete tumor regression and survival of 100% of the mice. Overall, our novel dendritic technologies using the protease-cleavable Val-Cit linker present an opportunity for the development of highly selective and potent controlled-released therapeutic payloads. This strategy could potentially lead to the development of novel and effective ADC technologies for patients diagnosed with HER2-positive cancers. Moreover, our proposed ADC linker technology can be implemented in additional medical conditions such as other malignancies as well as autoimmune diseases that overexpress targets, other than HER2.

Use of Poly Lactic-co-glycolic Acid Nano and Micro Particles in the Delivery of Drugs Modulating Different Phases of Inflammation.

Chronic inflammation contributes to the pathogenesis of many diseases, including apparently unrelated conditions such as metabolic disorders, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, osteoporosis, and tumors, but the use of conventional anti-inflammatory drugs to treat these diseases is generally not very effective given their adverse effects. In addition, some alternative anti-inflammatory medications, such as many natural compounds, have scarce solubility and stability, which are associated with low bioavailability. Therefore, encapsulation within nanoparticles (NPs) may represent an effective strategy to enhance the pharmacological properties of these bioactive molecules, and poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) NPs have been widely used because of their high biocompatibility and biodegradability and possibility to finely tune erosion time, hydrophilic/hydrophobic nature, and mechanical properties by acting on the polymer's composition and preparation technique. Many studies have been focused on the use of PLGA-NPs to deliver immunosuppressive treatments for autoimmune and allergic diseases or to elicit protective immune responses, such as in vaccination and cancer immunotherapy. By contrast, this review is focused on the use of PLGA NPs in preclinical in vivo models of other diseases in which a key role is played by chronic inflammation or unbalance between the protective and reparative phases of inflammation, with a particular focus on intestinal bowel disease; cardiovascular, neurodegenerative, osteoarticular, and ocular diseases; and wound healing.

Current Status and Trends in Nucleic Acids for Cancer Therapy: A Focus on Polysaccharide-Based Nanomedicines.

The efficacious delivery of therapeutic nucleic acids to cancer still remains an open issue. Through the years, several strategies are developed for the encapsulation of genetic molecules exploiting different materials, such as viral vectors, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), and polymeric nanoparticles (NPs). Indeed, the rapid approval by regulatory authorities and the wide use of LNPs complexing the mRNA coding for the spark protein for COVID-19 vaccination paved the way for the initiation of several clinical trials exploiting lipid nanoparticles for cancer therapy. Nevertheless, polymers still represent a valuable alternative to lipid-based formulations, due to the low cost and the chemical flexibility that allows for the conjugation of targeting ligands. This review will analyze the status of the ongoing clinical trials for cancer therapy, including vaccination and immunotherapy approaches, exploiting polymeric materials. Among those nanosized carriers, sugar-based backbones are an interesting category. A cyclodextrin-based carrier (CALAA-01) is the first polymeric material to enter a clinical trial complexed with siRNA for cancer therapy, and chitosan is one of the most characterized non-viral vectors able to complex genetic material. Finally, the recent advances in the use of sugar-based polymers (oligo- and polysaccharides) for the complexation of nucleic acids in advanced preclinical stage will be discussed.

MCP-1/CCR2 axis inhibition sensitizes the brain microenvironment against melanoma brain metastasis progression.

Development of resistance to chemo- and immunotherapies often occurs following treatment of melanoma brain metastasis (MBM). The brain microenvironment (BME), particularly astrocytes, cooperate toward MBM progression by upregulating secreted factors, among which we found that monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and its receptors, CCR2 and CCR4, were overexpressed in MBM compared with primary lesions. Among other sources of MCP-1 in the brain, we show that melanoma cells altered astrocyte secretome and evoked MCP-1 expression and secretion, which in turn induced CCR2 expression in melanoma cells, enhancing in vitro tumorigenic properties, such as proliferation, migration, and invasion of melanoma cells. In vivo pharmacological blockade of MCP-1 or molecular knockout of CCR2/CCR4 increased the infiltration of cytotoxic CD8+ T cells and attenuated the immunosuppressive phenotype of the BME as shown by decreased infiltration of Tregs and tumor-associated macrophages/microglia in several models of intracranially injected MBM. These in vivo strategies led to decreased MBM outgrowth and prolonged the overall survival of the mice. Our findings highlight the therapeutic potential of inhibiting interactions between BME and melanoma cells for the treatment of this disease.

Exploring chitosan-shelled nanobubbles to improve HER2 + immunotherapy via dendritic cell targeting.

Immunotherapy is a valuable approach to cancer treatment as it is able to activate the immune system. However, the curative methods currently in clinical practice, including immune checkpoint inhibitors, present some limitations. Dendritic cell vaccination has been investigated as an immunotherapeutic strategy, and nanotechnology-based delivery systems have emerged as powerful tools for improving immunotherapy and vaccine development. A number of nanodelivery systems have therefore been proposed to promote cancer immunotherapy. This work aims to design a novel immunotherapy nanoplatform for the treatment of HER2 + breast cancer, and specially tailored chitosan-shelled nanobubbles (NBs) have been developed for the delivery of a DNA vaccine. The NBs have been functionalized with anti-CD1a antibodies to target dendritic cells (DCs). The NB formulations possess dimensions of approximately 300 nm and positive surface charge, and also show good physical stability up to 6 months under storage at 4 °C. In vitro characterization has confirmed that these NBs are capable of loading DNA with good encapsulation efficiency (82%). The antiCD1a-functionalized NBs are designed to target DCs, and demonstrated the ability to induce DC activation in both human and mouse cell models, and also elicited a specific immune response that was capable of slowing tumor growth in mice in vivo. These findings are the proof of concept that loading a tumor vaccine into DC-targeted chitosan nanobubbles may become an attractive nanotechnology approach for the future immunotherapeutic treatment of cancer.

Lipid-Coated Nanocrystals as a Tool for Improving the Antioxidant Activity of Resveratrol.

Trans-resveratrol, a polyphenolic phytoalexin found in various plant sources, has been the focus of increasing attention in recent years because of its role in the prevention of many human diseases, and particularly because of its antioxidant properties. However, the in vivo effect of trans-resveratrol after oral administration is negligible when compared to its efficacy in vitro, due to its low bioavailability. Moreover, it presents stability issues as it is an extremely photosensitive compound when exposed to light. This work aims to develop lipid-coated nanocrystals in order to improve the antioxidant activity and bioavailability of trans-resveratrol. Lipid-coated trans-resveratrol nanocrystals with sizes lower than 500 nm, spherical shapes and smooth surfaces were obtained via a milling method. They showed a faster dissolution rate than the coarse trans-resveratrol powder. The antioxidant properties of trans-resveratrol were not impaired by the milling process. The in vivo pharmacokinetics of lipid-coated trans-resveratrol nanocrystals were evaluated after oral administration to rats, with a commercial Phytosome® formulation being used for comparison purposes. An increase in the trans-resveratrol area under the curve was observed and the lipid-coated nanocrystal formulation led to an enhancement in the oral bioavailability of the compound.

Nanotechnology Addressing Cutaneous Melanoma: The Italian Landscape.

Cutaneous melanoma is one of the most aggressive solid tumors, with a low survival for the metastatic stage. Currently, clinical melanoma treatments include surgery, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy and radiotherapy. Of note, innovative therapeutic regimens concern the administration of multitarget drugs in tandem, in order to improve therapeutic efficacy. However, also, if this drug combination is clinically relevant, the patient's response is not yet optimal. In this scenario, nanotechnology-based delivery systems can play a crucial role in the clinical treatment of advanced melanoma. In fact, their nano-features enable targeted drug delivery at a cellular level by overcoming biological barriers. Various nanomedicines have been proposed for the treatment of cutaneous melanoma, and a relevant number of them are undergoing clinical trials. In Italy, researchers are focusing on the pharmaceutical development of nanoformulations for malignant melanoma therapy. The present review reports an overview of the main melanoma-addressed nanomedicines currently under study in Italy, alongside the state of the art of melanoma therapy. Moreover, the latest Italian advances concerning the pre-clinical evaluation of nanomedicines for melanoma are described.

Meet me halfway: Are in vitro 3D cancer models on the way to replace in vivo models for nanomedicine development?

The complexity and diversity of the biochemical processes that occur during tumorigenesis and metastasis are frequently over-simplified in the traditional in vitro cell cultures. Two-dimensional cultures limit researchers' experimental observations and frequently give rise to misleading and contradictory results. Therefore, in order to overcome the limitations of in vitro studies and bridge the translational gap to in vivo applications, 3D models of cancer were developed in the last decades. The three dimensions of the tumor, including its cellular and extracellular microenvironment, are recreated by combining co-cultures of cancer and stromal cells in 3D hydrogel-based growth factors-inclusive scaffolds. More complex 3D cultures, containing functional blood vasculature, can integrate in the system external stimuli (e.g. oxygen and nutrient deprivation, cytokines, growth factors) along with drugs, or other therapeutic compounds. In this scenario, cell signaling pathways, metastatic cascade steps, cell differentiation and self-renewal, tumor-microenvironment interactions, and precision and personalized medicine, are among the wide range of biological applications that can be studied. Here, we discuss a broad variety of strategies exploited by scientists to create in vitro 3D cancer models that resemble as much as possible the biology and patho-physiology of in vivo tumors and predict faithfully the treatment outcome.

Nanosponges as protein delivery systems: Insulin, a case study.

Cyclodextrin-based nanosponges have been found to bepromising drug delivery systems. This paper investigates an application that still needs to be studied in depth, that is, the oral delivery of peptides and proteins, choosing insulin as a case study. The nanospongewas synthesized by crosslinkingß-cyclodextrins withpyromellitic dianhydride, adopting a top-down approach for its subsequent formulation. Aphysicochemical characterization, in-vitro andin-vivo tests were carried out on the formulation developed. It was nanometric (around 250 nm) with high negative zeta potential, mucoadhesion and swelling properties, good loading capability (about 14%) and encapsulation efficiency (above 90%). The in-vitro release of insulin was negligible at a gastric pH (below 2%) while sustained at an intestinal pH, thus showing a pH-sensitive behaviour of the nanosponge. The Caco-2 cell permeability assay proved that the intestinal permeation of insulin was enhanced when loaded inside the nanosponge. The in-vivo studies confirmed the presence of insulin in rat plasma and a marked hypoglycemic effect in diabetic mice after duodenal and oral administrations, respectively. These preliminary results are encouraging with a view to continuing to study this ß-cyclodextrin nanosponge technology for the oral administration of insulin and extending this approach to other proteins of pharmaceutical interest.

Rational Design of Polyglutamic Acid Delivering an Optimized Combination of Drugs Targeting Mutated BRAF and MEK in Melanoma.

Targeted therapies against cancer can relieve symptoms and induce remission, however, they often present limited duration of disease control, cause side effects and often induce acquired resistance. Therefore, there is a great motivation to develop a unique delivery system, targeted to the tumor, in which we can combine several active entities, increase the therapeutic index by reducing systemic exposure, and enhance their synergistic activity. To meet these goals, we chose the biocompatible and biodegradable poly(α,L-glutamic acid) (PGA) as a nanocarrier that facilitates extravasation-dependent tumor targeting delivery. The RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK pathway when aberrantly activated in melanoma, can lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation, induced invasion, and reduced apoptosis. Here, we selected two drugs targeting this pathway; a MEK1/2 inhibitor (selumetinib; SLM) and a modified BRAF inhibitor (modified dabrafenib; mDBF), that exhibited synergism in vitro. We synthesized and characterized our nanomedicine of PGA conjugated to SLM and mDBF (PGA-SLM-mDBF). PGA-SLM-mDBF inhibited the proliferation of melanoma cells and decreased their migratory and sprouting abilities without inducing a hemolytic effect. Moreover, the polymer-2-drugs conjugate exhibited superior anti-tumor activity in comparison with the two separate polymer-drug conjugates in vitro and with free drugs in a mouse model of primary melanoma and prolonged survival at a lower dose.

Persistent Chemiluminescent Glow of Phenoxy-dioxetane Luminophore Enables Unique CRET-Based Detection of Proteases.

Chemiluminescence is being considered an effective imaging modality as it offers low background and high sensitivity. Recent discovery by our group has led to development of new phenoxy-dioxetane chemiluminescence luminophores, which are highly bright under physiological conditions. However, the current scope of probes based on these luminophores is limited, as they can only be turned on by phenol protecting group removal. Here we present a new chemiluminescence resonance energy transfer (CRET) system, Glow-CRET, in which light emission is triggered by proteolytic cleavage of a peptide substrate that links a dioxetane luminophore and a quencher. In order to compose such system, a new phenoxy-dioxetane luminophore, 7-HC-CL, was developed. This luminophore exhibits intense and persistent glow chemiluminescence; it undergoes very slow chemiexcitation, and it has the highest chemiluminescence quantum yield ever reported under physiological conditions. Based on 7-HC-CL, a Glow-CRET probe for matrix metalloproteinases, MMP-CL, was synthesized. Incubation of MMP-CL with its cognate protease resulted in 160-fold increase in chemiluminescence signal. MMP-CL was also able to detect matrix metalloproteinase activity in cancer cells with significantly higher signal-to-background ratio than an analogous fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based probe. This work is expected to open new horizons in chemiluminescence imaging, as it enables to use the dioxetanes in ways that had not been possible. We anticipate that 7-HC-CL and future derivatives will be utilized not only for the construction of further Glow-CRET probes, but also for other applications, such as chemiluminescence tagging of proteins.

Inflammatory Activation of Astrocytes Facilitates Melanoma Brain Tropism via the CXCL10-CXCR3 Signaling Axis.

Melanoma is the deadliest skin cancer due to its high rate of metastasis, frequently to the brain. Brain metastases are incurable; therefore, understanding melanoma brain metastasis is of great clinical importance. We used a mouse model of spontaneous melanoma brain metastasis to study the interactions of melanomas with the brain microenvironment. We find that CXCL10 is upregulated in metastasis-associated astrocytes in mice and humans and is functionally important for the chemoattraction of melanoma cells. Moreover, CXCR3, the receptor for CXCL10, is upregulated in brain-tropic melanoma cells. Targeting melanoma expression of CXCR3 by nanoparticle-mediated siRNA delivery or by shRNA transduction inhibits melanoma cell migration and attenuates brain metastasis in vivo. These findings suggest that the instigation of pro-inflammatory signaling in astrocytes is hijacked by brain-metastasizing tumor cells to promote their metastatic capacity and that the CXCL10-CXCR3 axis may be a potential therapeutic target for the prevention of melanoma brain metastasis.

Oligo-guanidyl targeted bioconjugates forming rod shaped polyplexes as a new nanoplatform for oligonucleotide delivery.

Novel bioconjugates (Agm6-M-PEG-FA) for active oligonucleotide (ON) delivery have been developed by conjugating a cationic oligo-guanidyl star-like shaped "head" (Agm6-M) to a polymeric "tail" (PEG) terminating with folic acid (FA) as targeting agent or methoxy group (Agm6-M-PEG-FA and Agm6-M-PEG-OCH3, respectively). Gel electrophoresis showed that the bioconjugates completely associated with ONs at 3 nitrogen/phosphate (N/P) ratio. Studies performed with folate receptor (FR)-overexpressing HeLa cells, showed that optimal cell up-take was obtained with the 75:25 w/w Agm6-M-PEG-OCH3:Agm6-M-PEG-FA mixture. Dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy showed that the polyplexes had size <80 nm with narrow polydispersity and rod-shaped morphology. The polyplexes were stable for several hours in plasma while ON was released in the presence of heparin concentration 16-times higher than the physiological one. The polyplexes displayed negligible cytotoxicity, hemolysis and low pro-inflammatory TNF-α release. Studies performed with FR-overexpressing HeLa and MDA-MB-231 cells using siRac1 revealed that the folated polyplexes caused significantly higher gene silencing (86.1 ±â€¯9.6%) and inhibition of cell migration (40%) than the non-folated polyplexes obtained with Agm6-M-PEG-OCH3 only. Although cytofluorimetric analyses showed similar cell uptake for both folated and non-folated polyplexes, confocal, TEM and competition studies showed that the folated polyplexes were taken-up by lysosome escaping caveolin-mediated pathway with final polyplex localization within cytosol, while non-folated polyplexes were preferentially taken-up via clathrin-mediated pathway to localize in the lysosomes. Finally, preliminary in vivo studies carried out in mice revealed that the folated polyplexes dispose in the tumor mass.

Immunization with mannosylated nanovaccines and inhibition of the immune-suppressing microenvironment sensitizes melanoma to immune checkpoint modulators.

A low response rate, acquired resistance and severe side effects have limited the clinical outcomes of immune checkpoint therapy. Here, we show that combining cancer nanovaccines with an anti-PD-1 antibody (αPD-1) for immunosuppression blockade and an anti-OX40 antibody (αOX40) for effector T-cell stimulation, expansion and survival can potentiate the efficacy of melanoma therapy. Prophylactic and therapeutic combination regimens of dendritic cell-targeted mannosylated nanovaccines with αPD-1/αOX40 demonstrate a synergism that stimulates T-cell infiltration into tumours at early treatment stages. However, this treatment at the therapeutic regimen does not result in an enhanced inhibition of tumour growth compared to αPD-1/αOX40 alone and is accompanied by an increased infiltration of myeloid-derived suppressor cells in tumours. Combining the double therapy with ibrutinib, a myeloid-derived suppressor cell inhibitor, leads to a remarkable tumour remission and prolonged survival in melanoma-bearing mice. The synergy between the mannosylated nanovaccines, ibrutinib and αPD-1/αOX40 provides essential insights to devise alternative regimens to improve the efficacy of immune checkpoint modulators in solid tumours by regulating the endogenous immune response.

Nanotechnology is an important strategy for combinational innovative chemo-immunotherapies against colorectal cancer.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is among the five most commonly diagnosed cancers worldwide, constituting 6% of all cancers and the third leading cause of cancer death. CRC is the third and second most frequent cancer in men and women worldwide, accounting for 14% and 13% of all cancer incidence rates, respectively. CRC incidence is decreasing in older populations, but it has been significantly rising worldwide in adolescents and adults younger than 50 years old. Significant advances in the screening methods and surgical procedures have been underlying the reduction of the CRC incidence rate in older populations. However, there is an urgent demand for the development of alternative effective therapeutic options to overcome advanced metastatic CRC, while preventing disease recurrence. This review addresses the immune and CRC biology, summarizing the recent advances on the immune and/or therapeutic regimens currently in clinical use. We will focus on the emerging role of nanotechnology in the development of combinational therapies targeting and thereby regulating the function of the major players in CRC progression and immune evasion.

Light emission enhancement by supramolecular complexation of chemiluminescence probes designed for bioimaging.

Chemiluminescence offers advantages over fluorescence for bioimaging, since an external light source is unnecessary with chemiluminescent agents. This report demonstrates the first encapsulation of chemiluminescence phenoxy-adamantyl-1,2-dioxetane probes with trimethyl ß-cyclodextrin. Clear proof for the formation of a 1 : 1 host-guest complex between the adamantyl-1,2-dioxetane probe and trimethyl ß-cyclodextrin was provided by mass spectroscopy and NMR experiments. The calculated association constant of this host-guest system, 253 M-1, indicates the formation of a stable inclusion complex. The inclusion complex significantly amplified the light emission intensity relative to the noncomplexed probe under physiological conditions. Complexation of adamantyl-dioxetane with fluorogenic dye-tethered cyclodextrin resulted in light emission through energy transfer to a wavelength that corresponds to the fluorescent emission of the conjugated dye. Remarkably, the light emission intensity of this inclusion complex was approximately 1500-fold higher than that of the non-complexed adamantyl-dioxetane guest. We present the first demonstration of microscopic cell images obtained using a chemiluminescence supramolecular dioxetane probe and demonstrate the utility of these supramolecular complexes by imaging of enzymatic activity and bio-analytes in vitro and in vivo. We anticipate that the described chemiluminescence supramolecular dioxetane probes will find use in various biological applications.

Novel Oligo-Guanidyl-PEG Carrier Forming Rod-Shaped Polyplexes.

A novel unconventional supramolecular oligo-cationic structure (Agm6-M-PEG-OCH3) has been synthesized to yield high efficiency therapeutic oligonucleotide (ON) delivery. Agm6-M-PEG-OCH3 was obtained by a multistep protocol that included the conjugation of agmatine (Agm) moieties to maltotriose (M), which was further derivatized with one poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) chain. Gel electrophoresis analysis showed that the 19 base pairs dsDNA model ON completely associates with Agm6-M-PEG-OCH3 at 3 N/P molar ratio, which is in agreement with the in silico molecular predictions. Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) analyses showed that the Agm6-M-PEG-OCH3/ON association occurs through a combination of mechanisms depending on the N/P ratios resulting in different nanostructures. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed that the Agm6-M-PEG-OCH3/ON polyplexes have rod-shape structure with a mean diameter of 50-75 nm and aspect ratio depending on the N/P ratio. The polyplexes were stable over time in buffer, while a slight size increase was observed in the presence of serum proteins. Cell culture studies showed that neither Agm6-M-PEG-OCH3 nor polyplexes displayed cytotoxic effects. Cellular uptake depended on the cell line and polyplex composition: cellular internalization was higher in the case of MCF-7 and KB cells compared to MC3T3-E1 cells and polyplexes with smaller aspect ratio were taken-up by cells more efficiently than polyplexes with higher aspect ratio. Finally, preliminary studies showed that our novel carrier efficiently delivered ONs into cells providing gene silencing.

Image-guided surgery using near-infrared Turn-ON fluorescent nanoprobes for precise detection of tumor margins.

Complete tumor removal during surgery has a great impact on patient survival. To that end, the surgeon should detect the tumor, remove it and validate that there are no residual cancer cells left behind. Residual cells at the incision margin of the tissue removed during surgery are associated with tumor recurrence and poor prognosis for the patient. In order to remove the tumor tissue completely with minimal collateral damage to healthy tissue, there is a need for diagnostic tools that will differentiate between the tumor and its normal surroundings. Methods: We designed, synthesized and characterized three novel polymeric Turn-ON probes that will be activated at the tumor site by cysteine cathepsins that are highly expressed in multiple tumor types. Utilizing orthotopic breast cancer and melanoma models, which spontaneously metastasize to the brain, we studied the kinetics of our polymeric Turn-ON nano-probes. Results: To date, numerous low molecular weight cathepsin-sensitive substrates have been reported, however, most of them suffer from rapid clearance and reduced signal shortly after administration. Here, we show an improved tumor-to-background ratio upon activation of our Turn-ON probes by cathepsins. The signal obtained from the tumor was stable and delineated the tumor boundaries during the whole surgical procedure, enabling accurate resection. Conclusions: Our findings show that the control groups of tumor-bearing mice, which underwent either standard surgery under white light only or under the fluorescence guidance of the commercially-available imaging agents ProSense® 680 or 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA), survived for less time and suffered from tumor recurrence earlier than the group that underwent image-guided surgery (IGS) using our Turn-ON probes. Our "smart" polymeric probes can potentially assist surgeons' decision in real-time during surgery regarding the tumor margins needed to be removed, leading to improved patient outcome.

Structure-Function Analysis of Immune Checkpoint Receptors to Guide Emerging Anticancer Immunotherapy.

The modulation of immune checkpoint receptors has been one of the most successful, exciting, and explored approaches for cancer immunotherapy. Currently, several immune checkpoint modulators, mainly monoclonal antibodies, are showing remarkable results. However, the failure to show a response in most patients and the induction of severe immune-related adverse effects are the major drawbacks. Novel approaches concerning the development of immune modulatory small molecules have emerged as an alternative. Nevertheless, the lack of structural information about immune checkpoint receptors has hindered the rational design of those small-molecule modulators by preventing the use of methodologies such as computer-aided drug design. Herein, we provide an overview and critical analysis of the structural and dynamic details of immune checkpoint receptors (cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4), programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1), and glucocorticoid-induced TNFR-related protein (GITR)) and their interaction with known modulators. This knowledge is essential to advance the understanding of their binding mode and guide the design of novel effective targeted anticancer medicines.

Direct Real-Time Monitoring of Prodrug Activation by Chemiluminescence.

The majority of theranostic prodrugs reported so far relay information through a fluorogenic response generated upon release of the active chemotherapeutic agent. A chemiluminescence detection mode offers significant advantages over fluorescence, mainly due to the superior signal-to-noise ratio of chemiluminescence. Here we report the design and synthesis of the first theranostic prodrug monitored by a chemiluminescence diagnostic mode. As a representative model, we prepared a prodrug from the chemotherapeutic monomethyl auristatin E, which was modified for activation by ß-galactosidase. The activation of the prodrug in the presence of ß-galactosidase is accompanied by emission of a green photon. Light emission intensities, which increase with increasing concentration of the prodrug, were linearly correlated with a decrease in the viability of a human cell line that stably expresses ß-galactosidase. We obtained sharp intravital chemiluminescent images of endogenous enzymatic activity in ß-galactosidase-overexpressing tumor-bearing mice. The exceptional sensitivity achieved with the chemiluminescence diagnostic mode should allow the exploitation of theranostic prodrugs for personalized cancer treatment.