Effect of Simulated Microgravity and Lunar Gravity on Human Inspiratory Muscle Function: 'Selena-T' 2015 Study.

As a part of the multi-disciplinary "SELENA-T"-2015 Bed Rest Study, we investigated the pattern of inspiratory muscles fatigue in 22 healthy male subjects during incremental exercise test to exhaustion before and after 21 days of hypokinesia evoked by bed rest. Hypokinesia consisted of head-down bed rest (HDBR) at a minus 6° angle, simulating microgravity present on orbiting spacecraft, in 10 subjects. The remaining 12 subjects spent the first 5 days of hypokinesia in HDBR position and the subsequent 16 days in head-up bed rest (HUBR) at a plus 9.6° angle, as a presumed analog of lunar gravity that is six times less than Earth's gravity. Maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP) and electromyograms (EMG) of the diaphragm (D), parasternal (PS), sternocleidomastoid (SCM), and scalene (S) muscles served as indices of inspiratory muscle function. Before both HDBR and HUBR, exercise decreased MIP and centroid frequency (fc) of EMG (D, PS, SCM, and S) power spectrum (p < 0.05). After 3 weeks of HDBR, but not HUBR, inspiratory muscles fatigue was more expressed compared with control (p < 0.05). We conclude that HDBR lowers inspiratory muscles resistance to fatigue during high-intensity exercise while HUBR has no such effect. These changes may limit maximal ventilation and may contribute to exercise intolerance observed after prolonged simulated microgravity. The physiological mechanisms of respiratory muscle dysfunction after HDBR consist primarily of postural effects, and are not due only to hypokinesia.

Effects of inspiratory muscle training on resistance to fatigue of respiratory muscles during exhaustive exercise.

The aim of this study was to assess the effect of inspiratory muscle training (IMT) on resistance to fatigue of the diaphragm (D), parasternal (PS), sternocleidomastoid (SCM) and scalene (SC) muscles in healthy humans during exhaustive exercise. Daily inspiratory muscle strength training was performed for 3 weeks in 10 male subjects (at a pressure threshold load of 60% of maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP) for the first week, 70% of MIP for the second week, and 80% of MIP for the third week). Before and after training, subjects performed an incremental cycle test to exhaustion. Maximal inspiratory pressure and EMG-analysis served as indices of inspiratory muscle fatigue assessment. The before-to-after exercise decreases in MIP and centroid frequency (fc) of the EMG (D, PS, SCM, and SC) power spectrum (P<0.05) were observed in all subjects before the IMT intervention. Such changes were absent after the IMT. The study found that in healthy subjects, IMT results in significant increase in MIP (+18%), a delay of inspiratory muscle fatigue during exhaustive exercise, and a significant improvement in maximal work performance. We conclude that the IMT elicits resistance to the development of inspiratory muscles fatigue during high-intensity exercise.

The Mechanisms of Compensatory Responses of the Respiratory System to Simulated Central Hypervolemia in Normal Subjects.

The compensatory responses of the respiratory system to simulated central hypervolemia (CHV) were investigated in 14 normal subjects. The central hypervolemia was caused by a short-time passive head-down tilt (HDT, -30°, 30 min). The results show that CHV increased the mechanical respiratory load and the airway resistance, slowed the inspiratory flow, increased the duration of the inspiratory phase, reduced the respiratory rate, but not changed the minute ventilation. CHV induced a significant rise in inspiratory swings of alveolar pressure (184%), based on the inspiratory occlusion pressure measurement. These changes indicate a compensatory increase in the inspiratory muscle contraction force. A stable level of minute ventilation during CHV was an effect of increased EMG activity of parasternal muscles more than twice (P<0.01). A contribution of the diaphragm and scalene muscles to ventilation during spontaneous breathing in HDT was reduced. An increase of genioglossus contractile activity during HDT contributed to the stabilization of airway patency. These results suggest that a coordinated modulation of inspiratory muscles activity allows preserving a constant level of minute ventilation during a short-time intrathoracic blood volume expansion. The mechanisms of respiratory load compensation seem to be mediated by afferent information from the lung and respiratory muscle receptors and from the segmentary reflexes and intrinsic properties of the muscle fibers.

[Hardware and software for EMG recording and analysis of respiratory muscles of human].

This paper presents a new hardware and software system that allows to not only record the EMG of different groups of the respiratory muscles, but also hold its amplitude-frequency analysis, which allows to determine the change in the contribution to the work of breathing of a respiratory muscles and detect early signs of fatigue of the respiratory muscles. Presented complex can be used for functional diagnostics of breath in patients and healthy people and sportsmen.

[Inspiratory muscle resistance to fatigue during exercise and simulated airway obstruction].

Respiratory muscle fatigue can develop during simulated airway obstruction. The aim of this study was to characterize the pattern of inspiratory muscle fatigue and to assess the resistance to fatigue of diaphragm (D), parasternal (PS), sternocleidomastoid (SM) and scalene (SC). 8 healthy untrained subjects participated in this study. To identify signs of inspiratory muscles fatigue development electromyographic activity of D, PS, SCM and SC was recorded during 5-min exercise with loaded breathing (40 cm H2O/L · s(-1)). The before-to-after exercise measurements of maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP) and EMG power spectrum changes were performed. Maximal inspiratory pressure declined about 12% after exercise test compared with control, whereas the peak magnitude of integrated electrical activity of D, PS, SCM and SC during post-exercise Muller's maneuver was significantly greater than in pre-exercise test in all subjects. The extent ofinspiratory muscles fatigue was evaluated by analysis of shift in centroid frequency (fc) of EMG power spectrum. All subjects demonstrated a significant reduction in fc of PS, SCM and SC.fc of D was not changed. Diaphragm is more resistantto fatigue during obstructive breathing compared with PS, SCM and SC. The data suggest that the reduction of maximum inspiratory pressure in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease also caused primarily by the weakening of the accessory muscles, while the weakness of the diaphragm may occur in the later stages of the disease. The functional failure of accessory muscles is an additional factor, which, along with the additional breathing resistance increases the load on the diaphragm, promoting its fatigue and reduced respiratory reserve.

EMG analysis of human inspiratory muscle resistance to fatigue during exercise.

The aim of this study was to characterize the pattern of inspiratory muscle fatigue and to assess the resistance to fatigue of the diaphragm (D), parasternal (PS), sternocleidomastoid (SCM), and scalene (SC) muscles. Nine healthy, untrained male subjects participated in this study. Electromyographic activity (EMG) of D, PS, SCM, and SC was recorded during an incremental cycling test to exhaustion (workload of 1.0 W/kg with 0.5 W/kg increments every 5 min). The before-to-after exercise measurements of maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP) and EMG power spectrum changes were performed. The maximal inspiratory pressure declined about 8.1 % after exercise compared with that in the control condition (124.3 ± 8.5 vs. 114.2 ± 8.9 cmH2O) (P > 0.05), whereas the peak magnitude of integrated electrical activity of D, PS, SCM, and SC during the post-exercise Müller maneuver was significantly greater in all subjects than that pre-exercise. The extent of inspiratory muscles fatigue was evaluated by analysis of a shift in centroid frequency (fc) of EMG power spectrum. Exercise-induced D fatigue was present in three subjects and PS fatigue was another in two; whereas both D and PC fatigue were observed in four subjects. All subjects demonstrated a significant reduction in fc of SCM and SC. Results indicate that early signs of the fatiguing process might be detected in the D, PS, SCM, and SC muscles during exercise to exhaustion. Fatigue of either D or PS muscles develops selectively or together during exhaustive exercise, depending on the recruitment pattern of respiratory muscles. Accessory inspiratory muscles of the neck are less resistant to fatigue compared with the D and PS muscles.

Effects of body positions on respiratory muscle activation during maximal inspiratory maneuvers.

We evaluated the maximal mouth inspiratory pressure and the EMG patterns of major respiratory and accessory muscles used in the generation of voluntary inspiratory maneuvers during different body positions. Ten healthy subjects (F/M-4/6), the mean age 22.000B10.6 years, participated in the study. The maximal inspiratory mouth pressure (MIP) during Müller's maneuver was measured from residual volume in the standing, sitting, right-sided (RSL) and left-sided lying (LSL), supine, and head-down-tilt (HDT) (3000B0; relatively horizon) positions. EMG of the diaphragmatic (D), parasternal (PS), sternocleidomastoid (SM), and genioglossus (GG) muscles were assessed in each body position. The baseline MIP was 105.3 00B1; 12.0 in men and 59.9 00B110.1 cmH(2)O in women in the standing position and did not appreciable differ in the other positions, except the HDT where it was lower by 23 and 27% in men and women, respectively (P003C0.05). During Müllers maneuver, diaphragmatic EMG activity also was similar in all the body positions, but it was significantly enhanced in the HDT. In contrast, PS EMG showed the highest level of activation in the standing position, taken as the control, reference level, and was lower in the HDT. Activation of SM during the maneuver was near the control in the sitting position, lower in the supine (79%), RSL (85%), LSL (80%), and HDT (72%) positions (P 003C0.05). GG EMG was significantly greater during maximal inspiratory effort in the supine and HDT positions (125and 130%, respectively), while it was lower in the sitting, LRS, and LLS positions (76, 57, and 43%) compared with standing (P 003C; 0.05). We conclude that the inspiratory pressure generated during Muller maneuver is a reflection of complex interactions between several muscle groups during changes in body positions.

[Effect of head-down tilt on respiratory responses and human inspiratory muscles activity].

The effect of head-down tilt on respiration and diaphragmal and parasternal muscles activity was investigated in 11 healthy subjects. The short-time (30 min) head-down tilt posture (-30 degrees relatively horizont) increased the inspiratory time (P < 0.05), decreased breathing frequency (P < 0.05), inspiratory and expiratory flow rate (P < 0.05) and increased the airway resistance (P < 0.05) compared with values in vertical posture. There were no significant changes in tidal volume and minute ventilation. Constant values of tidal volume and minute ventilation during head-down tilt were provided by increasing in EMG activity of parasternal muscles more then twice. It was established that the contribution of chest wall inspiratory muscles increased while the diaphragm's contribution decreased during head-down spontaneous breathing. Maximal inspiratory effort (Muller's maneuver) during head-down tilt evoked the opposite EMG-activity pattern: the contribution of inspiratory thoracic muscles was decreased and diaphragm's EMG-activity was increased compared with vertical posture. These results suggest that coordinate modulations in inspiratory muscles activity allows to preserve the functional possibility of human inspiratory muscles during short-time head-down tilt.

[Optimization of function of breath by means of training with additional resistive resistance].

Research on studying influence of the rate of muscular training in conditions of additional resistive resistance to breath on a level of physical working capacity, aerobic productivity and a functional condition of system of breath was performed. It is shown, that regular muscular loadings in a combination to resistive resistance to breath in a mode of an interval exposition provide an increase of profitability and efficiency of functioning of breathing system as expressed in increase of expiratory force respiratory muscles, rationalization of parity of volumetric-time parameters of breath pattern that promotes more effective gas exchange and decrease in power cost of respiratory movements and as a result leads to increase in aerobic productivity and growth of the general and special working capacity. At continuous exposition of resistive resistance against a background of muscular training, the increase of inspiratory force of respiratory muscles, increase of functional capacity of system of breath were revealed at physical activity as well as a significant gain of the general physical working capacity.

[Effects of different oxygen contents in inhaled mixture on development of muscle fatigue in the human inspiratory muscles].

The object of the the present study involved determining of rate of the inspiratory muscles fatigue development in healthy humans during increasing exercise under resistive loaded breathing with the air, oxygen, or hypoxic gas mixtures (FIO2 = 0.21, 1.0 and 0.13 respectively). 6 normal male subjects were studied. Volume/time parameters of breathing and parasternal integrated EMG activities were recorded under inspiratory-expiratory resistive loading 12 cm H2O/I s(-1) during increasing exercise in the air, oxygen, or hypoxic gas mixtures. The degree of inspiratory muscle fatigue was assessed by the "tension-time" index P(ml)/P(ml max) Tl/T(T) as well as by ratio of the mean amplitudes of the EMG signal spectrum in the hight-frequency (H) range to the mean spectrum amplitudes in the low-frequency (L) range (H/L). The signs of inspiratory muscle fatigue were most conspicuous during inhalation of the hypoxic mixture, compared to air. This was supported by the increased "tension-time" index, the hurried shallow breathing, and the decreased H/L ratio on 37% (p < 0.001). Only starting signs of inspiratory muscle fatigue were revealed during oxygen inhalation, although the maximum working capacity was higher than the control one (exercise in air). The results indicate that the oxygen contained in the inhaled gas mixture affects on the total working capacity total working capacity and influences the rate of inspiratory muscle fatigue development in exercising healthy men during resistive load 12 cm H2O/l s(-1). The decreased energy supply to respiratory muscles accelerates functional failure and results in fatigue, whereas the increased energy supply decelerates the development of inspiratory muscle fatigue.

Effects of oxygen breathing on inspiratory muscle fatigue during resistive load in cycling men.

The aim of the present study was to determine the development of the inspiratory muscle fatigue in healthy human during incremental cycling to exhaustion under mild and heavy resistive loaded breathing in air and oxygen. Minute ventilation, tidal volume, respiratory rate, inspiratory mouth pressure, and parasternal EMG activities were recorded during an incremental cycling test under mild (12 cmH(2)O x l(-1) x s(-1)) and heavy (40 cmH(2)O x l(-1) x s(-1)) resistive loading in air and oxygen in 8 men. The degree of inspiratory muscle fatigue was evaluated by analysis of the dynamics of inspiratory mouth pressure, 'tension-time' index, and the fall of the high-to-low (H/L) ratio of the parasternal EMG. It was found that oxygen breathing slowed the development of inspiratory muscles fatigue evoked by incremental cycling only during mild resistive loading, whereas hyperoxia had not influence on inspiratory muscle endurance during heavy resistive loading.

Effects of normoxia and hyperoxia on the rate of fatigue development in human respiratory muscles under conditions of intensive resistive load.

We evaluated the rate of fatigue development in the inspiratory muscles of healthy trained individuals during graded bicycle exercise and high resistive resistance to breath under conditions of normoxia and hyperoxia. Fatigue of the respiratory muscles was assessed by tension-time index (TT(m)=P(m)I/P(m)I(maxx)T(I)/T(T)), by the dynamics of changes in the ratio of respiratory volume to inspiratory muscles force, and by ratio of the mean amplitudes of electrical activity in high and low frequency ranges. It was found that the limit of extreme working capacity in humans during heavy resistive load is related to fatigue of the inspiratory muscles developing with the same rate under conditions of normoxia or hyperoxia.

[The regulation of breathing during the inhalation of different densities of gas mixtures under increasing muscle work in man]. / Reguliatsiia dykhaniia v usloviiakh ingaliatsii gazovykh smesei razlichnoi plotnosti pri vozrastaiushchei myshechnoi rabote u cheloveka.

The maximal working ability of the subjects did not depend on the composition of inhaled gas mixtures. The lung ventilation, oxygen consumption and CO2 release, as well as the heart rate were increasing along with the physical load increase, the changes being not dependent on the mixture composition. A significant decrease in the effort of the respiratory muscles, in the respiration work and in central inspiratory activity occurred in inhalation of a helium-oxygen mixture, whereas these parameters increased in breathing with an argon-oxygen mixture. The compensatory responses of the respiratory system seem to appear on the basis of afferents from the lungs and respiratory muscles mechanoreceptors as well as on account of the segmentary level reflexes and the properties of a muscular fibre itself.