Probing and gauging of D-Penicillamine xenobiotics in hepatic Wilson disease patients.

D-penicillamine (PA) is the primary chelator of choice to treat Wilson disease (WD). There are limitations in obtaining comprehensive data on PA metabolites in biological specimens by conventional approaches. Hence, the aim of the present was to identify the major hepatic PA metabolites and draw clear conclusions of the drug's xenobiotic in WD. Urine samples were collected from children with hepatic WD (n = 63, aged 14.8 ± 4 years) 5 h after PA administration (16.3 ± 3.8 mg/kg/day) and age-matched healthy volunteers comprised as controls (n = 30). High-resolution 800 MHz nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) and mass spectrometry was applied to reveal unambiguous appraisals of different excretory by-products of PA metabolism. Four new products comprising penicillamine disulphide (PD), penicillamine cysteine disulphide (PCD), S-methyl penicillamine (SMP), and N-acetyl penicillamine (NAP) of PA xenobiotic metabolites were identified using high-resolution NMR spectroscopy. Quantitative levels of PCD and SMP were approximately three-fold higher than those of PD and NAP, respectively. High-resolution NMR identifies the major PA metabolites with certainty. Reduction, sulfation, and methylation are the predominant pathways of PA metabolism. There is a potential application for assessing therapeutic monitoring of chelation in hepatic WD.

Successful Hemostasis Using Fully Covered Self-Expanding Metallic Stent for Spontaneous Hemobilia in a Child With Portal Cavernoma Cholangiopathy.

Portal cavernoma cholangiopathy refers to changes in the intrahepatic and extrahepatic biliary ducts in patients with extrahepatic portal venous obstruction. Spontaneous hemobilia in the setting of portal cavernoma cholangiopathy is extremely rare, and it poses diagnostic as well as therapeutic challenge. Here, we report the case of a 10-year-old girl with extrahepatic portal venous obstruction, who presented with hemobilia. Computed tomography angiography of abdomen and endoscopic ultrasound confirmed the presence of pericholedochal, paracholedochal, and intracholedochal varices. Hemostasis was achieved with the placement of a fully covered self-expanding metallic stent into the common bile duct. Fully covered self-expanding metallic stent is safe and effective for control of bleeding in children presenting with hemobilia.

Discrimination of pediatric cryptogenic multifocal ulcerous stenosing enteritis from small bowel Crohn's disease and gastrointestinal tuberculosis: A retrospective study (with videos).

INTRODUCTION: Cryptogenic multifocal ulcerous stenosing enteritis (CMUSE) is a rare entity that mimics various inflammatory strictures of the small intestine. Pediatric literature is scarce. We analyzed the clinical, radiological, endoscopic and histopathological features of children with CMUSE that differentiate it from small bowel Crohn's disease (SBCD) and gastrointestinal tuberculosis (GITB). METHODS: CMUSE was diagnosed by the following criteria: (1) unexplained small bowel strictures with superficial ulcers, (2) chronic/relapsing ulcers of small bowel after resection, (3) no signs of systemic inflammation, (4) absence of other known etiologies of small bowel ulcers. SBCD and GITB were diagnosed based on standard criteria. The clinical features, laboratory parameters, radioimaging, endoscopy (including video capsule endoscopy [VCE], intra-operative endoscopy), histopathological features and treatment outcome were noted. RESULTS: Out of 48, CMUSE was diagnosed in 13 (27%) isolated small bowel and ileocecal strictures, while GITB and SBCD accounted for 41% and 21% cases, respectively. Common presentations were sub-acute obstruction (46%), obscure gastrointestinal bleeding (38%) and protein-losing enteropathy (38%). CMUSE patients had significantly longer disease duration compared to SBCD and GITB (p < 0.001). SBCD (90.0%) and GITB (85%) cases had elevated C-reactive protein (CRP), none with CMUSE had elevated CRP (p < 0.001). The disease was localized in jejunum (100%) and proximal ileum (56%) in CMUSE, ileocecal region (85%) in GITB, but evenly distributed in small intestine in SBCD. Endoscopy showed evenly placed, superficial, circumferential ulcers with strictures in CMUSE, deep linear ulcers in SBCD and circumferential ulcers in GITB. Upfront immunosuppression was given in four; three (75%) of them relapsed. Only surgery was done in three with one (25%) having relapse. Upfront surgery followed by immunosuppression was used in six, but all relapsed and two required repeat surgery. CONCLUSION: CMUSE is important but underdiagnosed in children. Lack of constitutional symptoms, normal inflammatory parameters and characteristic ulcers with strictures helped in differentiating CMUSE from GITB and SBCD.

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease: A silent pandemic.

The worldwide epidemiology of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is showing an upward trend, parallel to the rising trend of metabolic syndrome, owing to lifestyle changes. The pathogenesis of NAFLD has not been fully understood yet. Therefore, NAFLD has emerged as a public health concern in the field of hepatology and metabolisms worldwide. Recent changes in the nomenclature from NAFLD to metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease have brought a positive outlook changes in the understanding of the disease process and doctor-patient communication. Lifestyle changes are the main treatment modality. Recently, clinical trial using drugs that target 'insulin resistance' which is the driving force behind NAFLD, have shown promising results. Further translational research is needed to better understand the underlying pathophysiological mechanism of NAFLD which may open newer avenues of therapeutic targets. The role of gut dysbiosis in etiopathogenesis and use of fecal microbiota modification in the treatment should be studied extensively. Prevention of this silent epidemic by spreading awareness and early intervention should be our priority.

Fecal microbiota transplantation in the treatment of hepatic encephalopathy: A perspective.

Due to its complex pathogenesis, treatment of hepatic encephalopathy (HE) continues to be a therapeutic challenge. Of late, gut microbiome has garnered much attention for its role in the pathogenesis of various gastrointestinal and liver diseases and its potential therapeutic use. New evidence suggests that gut microbiota plays a significant role in cerebral homeostasis. Alteration in the gut microbiota has been documented in patients with HE in a number of clinical and experimental studies. Research on gut dysbiosis in patients with HE has opened newer therapeutic avenues in the form of probiotics, prebiotics and the latest fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT). Recent studies have shown that FMT is safe and could be effective in improving outcomes in advanced liver disease patients presenting with HE. However, questions over the appropriate dose, duration and route of administration for best treatment outcome remains unsettled.

Hepatic pseudotumor: A diagnostic challenge.

Hepatic pseudotumors are rare lesions of unknown origin, characterized by the proliferation of fibrous connective tissue and inflammatory cell infiltrates. They mimic malignant lesions clinically, and radiologically, given their non-specific clinical and imaging features. The pathophysiology of hepatic pseudotumor is incompletely understood and there are no standardized criteria for diagnosis. Pseudotumors have been reported to develop in various organs in the body with the lung and liver being the most common site. Hepatic pseudotumors develop in patients with underlying triggers of liver inflammation and injury, including infections, autoimmune liver diseases, bile duct injury, or surgery. Hepatic pseudotumors respond well to conservative treatment with antibiotics, and steroids and some may regress spontaneously, thus avoiding unnecessary resection. This condition is rewarding to treat. It is important to recognize pseudotumor as a distinct clinical entity and include it in the differential of liver masses with atypical imaging features.

Aetiology and diagnostic utility of serum ascites albumin gradient in children with ascites.

BACKGROUND: Ascites in children is multifactorial and serum ascites albumin gradient (SAAG) ≥1.1 helps differentiate portal hypertension (PHTN) related from non-PHTN ascites. AIMS: We evaluated the aetiology and diagnostic accuracy of SAAG in children with ascites. METHODS: Children with ascites were retrospectively evaluated. Etiological diagnosis was based on clinical presentation and investigations. All cases with ascitic fluid analysis and a definite diagnosis were included for calculating the utility of SAAG. RESULTS: We enrolled 878 children (568[64.7%] boys). Majority were PHTN related (638[72.7%]) and secondary to acute viral hepatitis (98,15.4%), acute liver failure (185,29%), chronic liver disease (276,43.3%) and Budd-Chiari syndrome (79,12.4%). Other causes included tubercular (46,5.2%), pancreatic (32,3.6%), chylous (20,2.3%), biliary (12,1.4%), pseudoascites (16,1.8%), infections (46,5.2%), nephrotic (26,2.9%), malignancy (23,2.6%), cardiac (9,1.0%) and others (10,1%). SAAG (n = 305) correctly differentiated PHTN and non-PHTN ascites in 272 (89.2%) cases, with a high sensitivity (97%), specificity (93%) and diagnostic accuracy (95.8%). Reasons for inaccurate SAAG included mixed ascites (n = 9), different day serum and ascitic fluid albumin estimation (n = 5), serum albumin ≤1.1 g/dL (n = 2), chylous ascites (n = 3), hypergammaglobulinemia (n = 1), albumin infusions (n = 1) and unexplained (n = 12). CONCLUSIONS: Nearly 27% children had non-PHTN related ascites. SAAG differentiates PHTN from non-PHTN ascites with a diagnostic accuracy of 95%.

Persistent fever in acute hepatitis: think beyond acute viral hepatitis.

BACKGROUND: Acute hepatitis due to various tropical infections can mimic the clinical picture of acute viral hepatitis(AVH), leading to increased morbidity and mortality. We aimed to identify clinical and laboratory parameters that could help to distinguish acute hepatitis due to tropical infections from AVH. METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed our database of 150 children (107 boys) with AVH and 50 children(34 boys)with acute hepatitis due to tropical infections between January 2013 and March 2023. Clinical features, investigations, complications and outcomes were compared. RESULTS: Hepatitis A (75%) was the commonest etiology of AVH while enteric fever (34%), dengue (26%), scrub typhus (20%) and leptospirosis (16%) constituted the majority of tropical infections. Persistent fever and skin rashes were found in 88% and 16% of patients respectively in the tropical infection group and none in the AVH group (p < 0.001). On univariate analysis, prodromal symptoms, clinically detectable jaundice, cholestatic pattern, total and direct bilirubin and liver enzymes were significantly higher in AVH while headache, myalgia, leukopoenia, thrombocytopenia, hyponatremia were significantly higher in tropical infections group (all p < 0.05). Multivariate analysis identified thrombocytopenia (Odds ratio [OR] 4.237) as an independent positive predictive factor and markedly elevated total bilirubin (OR 0.575), direct bilirubin (OR 0.498), aspartate aminotransferase (OR 0.841) and alanine aminotransferase (OR 0.863) as independent negative predictive factors for acute hepatitis due to tropical infections. CONCLUSION: High index of suspicion for tropical infections is warranted in patients with persistent fever after the onset of jaundice, especially in the presence of skin rash and thrombocytopenia.SUMMARYAcute viral hepatitis and acute hepatitis due to tropical infections can have similar clinical and biochemical parameters. Milder degree of jaundice, lower elevation of serum transaminases and thrombocytopenia can be useful predictors for acute hepatitis due to tropical infections.

Decoding hepatorenal tyrosinemia type 1: Unraveling the impact of early detection, NTBC, and the role of liver transplantation.

Hepatorenal tyrosinemia type 1 (HT-1) is a rare autosomal recessive disease that results from a deficiency of fumaryl acetoacetate hydrolase (FAH), a critical enzyme in the catabolic pathway for tyrosine. This leads to the accumulation of toxic metabolites such as fumaryl and maleylacetoacetate, which can damage the liver, kidneys, and nervous system. The discovery of 2-[2-nitro-4-trifluoromethylbenzoyl]-1,3-cyclohexanedione (NTBC or nitisinone) has significantly improved the management of HT-1, particularly when initiated before the onset of symptoms. Therefore, newborn screening for HT-1 is essential for timely diagnosis and prompt treatment. The analysis of succinyl acetone (SA) in dried blood spots of newborns followed by quantification of SA in blood or urine for high-risk neonates has excellent sensitivity and specificity for the diagnosis of HT-1. NTBC combined with dietary therapy, if initiated early, can provide liver transplant (LT) free survival and reduce the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Patients failing medical treatment (eg, due to non-adherence), and who develop acute liver failure (ALF), have HCC or evidence of histologically proven dysplastic liver nodule(s), or experience poor quality of life secondary to severe dietary restrictions are currently indicated for LT. Children with HT-1 require frequent monitoring of liver and renal function to assess disease progression and treatment compliance. They are also at risk of long-term neurocognitive impairment, which highlights the need for neurocognitive assessment and therapy.

Cholestatic Liver Disease due to Novel USP53 Mutations: A Case Series of Three Indian Children.

Cholestatic liver diseases in children often have an underlying genetic defect. Genetic testing by next-generation sequencing has become a crucial part of the diagnostic armamentarium in such clinical scenarios. Here, we report three children who presented with early-onset cholestatic jaundice and pruritus. All of them had low gamma-glutamyl transferase and high serum bile acid levels. Symptoms were alleviated with ursodeoxycholic acid and cholestyramine in all 3 children with normal LFT at follow-up. They were detected to have novel pathogenic USP53 mutations (2 homozygous, 1 compound heterozygous) on next-generation sequencing which have previously not been reported.

Eosinophilic esophagitis in children: A cross-sectional study from a tertiary care center.

Background and Aim: The prevalence of eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is rising in the West. However, data from the Indian subcontinent is limited. In this prospective cross-sectional study, we estimated the prevalence of EoE among children undergoing elective upper gastrointestinal endoscopy (UGIE). Methods: We enrolled 200 consecutive children (123 boys, median age 10.25 years [interquartile range 8.25-14.5]) between March 2020 and November 2022 at our center. Clinical characteristics, endoscopic findings, and laboratory parameters were noted. A total of 12 mucosal biopsies (3 each from the middle and lower third of the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum) were obtained. EoE was diagnosed if the peak eosinophil count was ≥15/high-power field (HPF) in absence of gastric and duodenal eosinophilia. Results: The commonest indications for UGIE were gastroesophageal reflux disease-like symptoms (29%), inflammatory bowel disease (22.5%), celiac disease (15%), and abdominal pain (13%). EoE was detected in seven children, suggesting an overall prevalence of 3.5%. Of the 20 children evaluated for dysphagia, 4 (20%) had EoE. Also, two of three (67%) children presented with food bolus impaction along with dysphagia had EoE. Of the seven children with EoE, three (43%) had bronchial asthma, two (28.5%) had peripheral eosinophilia, and one (14%) had elevated serum IgE. Trachealization and linear furrows were found in 57% and 71% cases, respectively. Four children received high-dose proton pump inhibitor (PPI) for 12 weeks, two received PPI+ stricture dilatation, and one received systemic steroids. All achieved clinical, endoscopic, and histopathological remission. Conclusion: Hospital-based prevalence of EoE among children undergoing elective UGIE was 3.5%. EoE patients had favorable outcomes with PPI.

Budd-Chiari syndrome in children: Radiological intervention and role of shear wave elastography in monitoring response.

OBJECTIVES: Radiological intervention (RI) is the preferred treatment in children with Budd-Chiari syndrome (BCS). We studied the comparative long-term outcome of BCS children, with and without RI and utility of liver and splenic stiffness measurement (LSM, SSM) by 2-dimensional shear wave elastography (2D-SWE) in assessing response. METHODS: Sixty children (40 boys, median age 10.5 [6.5-15.25] years) with BCS (29 newly diagnosed, 31 follow-up) were evaluated. LSM and SSM by 2D-SWE and vascular patency were monitored pre- and postprocedure (≥ 6 months postprocedure) in those undergoing RI. Medical therapy without anticoagulation and monitoring was done in subjects without RI. The RI and no-RI groups were compared. RESULTS: Ascites (54,90%), hepatomegaly (56,93%) and prominent abdominal-veins (42,70%), were the commonest features. The majority (46,78%) had isolated hepatic vein block. 44 (73%) cases underwent RI, while 16 (27%) were managed conservatively. Both groups were similar at baseline. Post-RI subjects showed significant improvement in clinical findings, liver functions and portal hypertension. LSM [33 (32-34.5) to 19.2 (18-20.67) kPa] and SSM [54.5 (52.3-57.6) to 28.9 (27.6-30.25) kPa] showed a significant decline from baseline value over a follow-up of 12 (6-13) months. Gradual reduction occurred in the LSM and SSM over 1-5 years, with near-normal LSM [10.2 (9.2-11.5) kPa] and SSM [22.3 (20.5-24.3) kPa] values in patients (n-16) with > 5 years follow-up. Patients without RI showed worsening in LSM and SSM. Hepatopulmonary syndrome and hepatocellular carcinoma developed in 4 (8%) and 1 (1.7%) cases respectively. CONCLUSION: RI leads to clinical recovery and reduction with near normalization of LSM and SSM over long-term follow-up in children with BCS. 2D-SWE is a promising tool to monitor outcomes.

Risk Factors for Post-Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangio-Pancreatography Pancreatitis in Children With Chronic Pancreatitis and Its Prediction Using 4-Hour Postprocedure Serum Amylase and Lipase Levels.

BACKGROUND: Post-endoscopic retrograde cholangio-pancreatography pancreatitis (PEP) is seen in 3% to 16% of children undergoing therapeutic endoscopic retrograde cholangio-pancreatography (ERCP). We evaluated the risk factors of PEP and utility of 4-hour post-ERCP amylase and lipase for early prediction of PEP in children with chronic pancreatitis (CP). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Thirty children with CP (boys 20, 14.3 [interquartile range, 9.3-16] years) who underwent 62 ERCP procedures were studied. Clinical and procedural details with outcome were noted. Serum amylase and lipase were measured before, 4 hours, and 24 hours after ERCP. Multivariate analysis was done to identify risk factors for PEP. Cutoff scores of 4-hour amylase and lipase were identified. RESULTS: PEP occurred in 14.5% (9/62) of ERCP procedures (mild, 8; moderate, 1) with no mortality. On univariate analysis, endoscopic sphincterotomy ( P = 0.04), difficult cannulation ( P = 0.004), and prior PEP ( P = 0.036) were risk factors, while prior ERCP ( P = 0.04) was protective. Difficult cannulation (odds ratio, 5.83; 95% confidence interval, 1.329-25.592) was the independent risk factor on multivariate analysis overall and for first ERCP session alone. Amylase >3.3 times upper limit of normal (ULN) and lipase of >5 times ULN at 4 hours had best sensitivity and specificity for diagnosis of PEP. All cases with PEP were symptomatic by 6 hours and none had amylase/lipase <3 ULN at 4 hours. Amylase/lipase of <3 ULN at 4 hours could exclude PEP with good sensitivity (100%) and specificity (76% and 81%, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: PEP occurred in 14.5% of procedures in children with CP, with difficult cannulation being the independent risk factor. Asymptomatic patients with 4-hour amylase/lipase <3 times ULN can be safely discharged.

Budd-Chiari syndrome in children: Challenges and outcome.

Budd-Chiari syndrome (BCS) is an uncommon disease of the liver, characterised by obstruction of the hepatic venous outflow tract. The etiological spectrum of BCS as well as venous obstruction pattern show wide geographical and demographic variations across the globe. Compared to adults with BCS, children have primary BCS as the predominant etiology, earlier clinical presentation, and hence better treatment outcome. Underlying prothrombotic conditions play a key role in the etiopathogenesis of BCS, though work-up for the same is often unyielding in children. Use of next-generation sequencing in addition to conventional tests for thrombophilia leads to better diagnostic yield. In recent years, advances in radiological endovascular intervention techniques have revolutionized the treatment and outcome of BCS. Various non-invasive markers of fibrosis like liver and splenic stiffness measurement are being increasingly used to assess treatment response. Elastography techniques provide a novel non-invasive tool for measuring liver and splenic stiffness. This article reviews the diagnostic and therapeutic advances and challenges in children with BCS.

Challenges and dilemmas in pediatric hepatic Wilson's disease.

Wilson disease is an autosomal recessive disorder affecting the ATP7B gene located on chromosome 13q. This leads to copper deposition in various organs, most importantly in the liver and brain. The genetic mutations are vast, well reported in the West but poorly documented in developing countries. Hence the diagnosis is made with a constellation of clinico-laboratory parameters which have significant overlap with other liver diseases and often pose a significant dilemma for clinicians. Diagnostic scoring systems are not fool-proof. The availability and affordability of chelators in developing countries impact the drug compliance of patients. While D-penicillamine is a potent drug, its side effects lead to drug discontinuation. Trientine is cost-prohibitive in developing countries. There is no single test to assess the adequacy of chelation. Exchangeable urinary copper is an essential upcoming diagnostic and prognostic tool. In the presence of cirrhosis, hypersplenism clouds the assessment of myelosuppression of drugs. Similarly, it may be difficult to distinguish disease tubulopathy from drug-induced glomerulonephritis. Neurological worsening due to chelators may appear similar to disease progression. Presentation as fulminant hepatic failure requires rapid workup. There is a limited window of opportunity to salvage these patients with the help of plasmapheresis and other liver-assisted devices. This review addresses the challenges and clinical dilemmas faced at beside in developing countries.

Congenital colonic stenosis: an unusual cause of colonic obstruction masquerading as Hirschsprung's disease in infancy.

Congenital colonic stenosis (CCS) is an extremely rare cause of large bowel obstruction in early infancy. Only 35 cases of CCS have been reported in literature to date. CCS often causes a diagnostic quandary as it is difficult to distinguish it clinically from Hirschsprung's disease. We report a case of an infant with CCS who was managed with resection of the diseased colonic segment with critical stenosis at two sites and colo-colonic anastomosis. In our report, we discuss the challenges faced in the diagnosis and surgical management of this unusual case.

Hypocoagulability in Children With Decompensated Chronic Liver Disease and Sepsis: Assessment by Thromboelastography.

Objective: To evaluate the coagulation status of children with decompensated chronic liver disease (DCLD) and infection and factors affecting it using thromboelastography (TEG). Methods: Coagulation status of children admitted with DCLD and infection was assessed by international normalized ratio (INR), platelet count, and TEG [reaction time (R), kinetic time (K), α-angle (AA), maximum amplitude (MA), coagulation index (CI), and lysis index (LY30)] at admission and at 7-14 days after treatment. CI < -3 represents hypocoagulable state. Clinical profile including systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), infection severity, bleeding, treatment response, and outcome were noted. Results: Thirty children (21 boys, median (IQR) age 78 [15.7-180] months) were studied prospectively. At admission, 29 (96.7%) had prolonged INR, 24 (80%) had thrombocytopenia, and 17 (56.6%) were hypocoagulable by TEG. Nine of 30 (30%) had normal TEG but deranged INR and platelets. Nineteen (63.3%) cases had SIRS, 11 (36.6%) had severe sepsis, and 8 (26.6%) had bleeding. Hypocoagulable state was common in severe sepsis than sepsis/infection (81.1% versus 42.1%; P = 0.05) and persistent (n = 4) versus recovered SIRS (n = 15, 100% versus 33%; P = 0.03). Bleeders had prolonged R-time (7.8 versus 5.4 min; P = 0.03), smaller MA (30.2 versus 47 mm; P = 0.05), and α-angle (40.4 versus 62.9; P = 0.03) but similar INR and platelets than nonbleeders. Six patients (20%) had poor in-hospital outcomes; R-time ≥8.5 min predicted mortality with high sensitivity (83%) and specificity (100%). Conclusions: Fifth-seven percent of children with DCLD and infection were hypocoagulable by TEG. Severe sepsis and persistent SIRS worsened the coagulation status. TEG identifies bleeders better than INR and platelet count. R-time ≥8.5 min predicts a poor hospital outcome.

Visceral Fat Indices: Do They Help Differentiate Crohn's Disease and Intestinal Tuberculosis in Children?

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Crohn's disease [CD] and intestinal tuberculosis [ITB] are often difficult to differentiate. Mesenteric fat hypertrophy is a feature of CD. We evaluated the utility of fat indices (visceral fat [VF] and subcutaneous fat [SF]) in differentiating CD and ITB in children. METHODS: Symptomatic children diagnosed to have CD or ITB based on recommended criteria were enrolled. Clinical, anthropometric, and laboratory details were noted. Abdominal fat was measured on computed tomography in supine position at the level of L4 vertebrae. VF and SF area was measured separately by a radiologist, blinded to the diagnosis. The sum of VF and SF was taken as total fat [TF]. VF/SF and VF/TF ratios were calculated. RESULTS: Thirty-four (age 14 years [10.8-17.0], 14 boys) children were recruited: 12 had CD [seven boys, age 13.0 years] and 22 had ITB [seven boys, age 14.5 years]. VF area was higher in CD compared to ITB (18.34 cm2 [15.62-40.01] vs 6.48 cm2 [2.65-21.96]; p = 0.012). The SF and TF area was similar in ITB and CD. The ratios of VF/SF (0.82 [0.57-1.5] vs 0.33 [0.16-0.48]; p = 0.004) and VF/TF (0.45 [0.36-0.60] vs 0.25 [0.13-0.32]; p = 0.004) were significantly higher in CD. On comparing CD and ITB in boys and girls separately, the difference was significant for boys but not for girls. A VF/SF ratio of 0.609 predicted CD with a good sensitivity [75%] and specificity [86.4%] [area under the curve 0.795, 95% confidence interval 0.636-0.955; p = 0.005]. CONCLUSION: The VF/SF ratio is a simple, non-invasive, objective parameter to differentiate CD and ITB in children, particularly boys. Larger studies are needed to validate this in girls.