Enhanced optical imaging and fluorescent labeling for visualizing drug molecules within living organisms.

The visualization of drugs in living systems has become key techniques in modern therapeutics. Recent advancements in optical imaging technologies and molecular design strategies have revolutionized drug visualization. At the subcellular level, super-resolution microscopy has allowed exploration of the molecular landscape within individual cells and the cellular response to drugs. Moving beyond subcellular imaging, researchers have integrated multiple modes, like optical near-infrared II imaging, to study the complex spatiotemporal interactions between drugs and their surroundings. By combining these visualization approaches, researchers gain supplementary information on physiological parameters, metabolic activity, and tissue composition, leading to a comprehensive understanding of drug behavior. This review focuses on cutting-edge technologies in drug visualization, particularly fluorescence imaging, and the main types of fluorescent molecules used. Additionally, we discuss current challenges and prospects in targeted drug research, emphasizing the importance of multidisciplinary cooperation in advancing drug visualization. With the integration of advanced imaging technology and molecular design, drug visualization has the potential to redefine our understanding of pharmacology, enabling the analysis of drug micro-dynamics in subcellular environments from new perspectives and deepening pharmacological research to the levels of the cell and organelles.

Lysosome passivation triggered by silver nanoparticles enhances subcellular-targeted drug therapy.

Frequently, subcellular-targeted drugs tend to accumulate in lysosomes after cellular absorption, a process termed the lysosomal trap. This accumulation often interferes with the drug's ability to bind to its target, resulting in decreased efficiency. Existing methods for addressing lysosome-induced drug resistance mainly involve improving the structures of small molecules or enveloping drugs in nanomaterials. Nonetheless, these approaches can lead to changes in the drug structure or potentially trigger unexpected reactions within organisms. To address these issues, we introduced a strategy that involves inactivating the lysosome with the use of Ag nanoparticles (Cy3.5@Ag NPs). In this method, the Cy3.5@Ag NPs gradually accumulate inside lysosomes, leading to permeation of the lysosomal membrane and subsequent lysosomal inactivation. In addition, Cy3.5@Ag NPs also significantly affected the motility of lysosomes and induced the occurrence of lysosome passivation. Importantly, coincubating Cy3.5@Ag NPs with various subcellular-targeted drugs was found to significantly increase the efficiency of these treatments. Our strategy illustrates the potential of using lysosomal inactivation to enhance drug efficacy, providing a promising therapeutic strategy for cancer.

Mitochondrial nucleoid condensates drive peripheral fission through high membrane curvature.

Mitochondria are dynamic organelles that undergo fusion and fission events, in which the mitochondrial membrane and DNA (mtDNA) play critical roles. The spatiotemporal organization of mtDNA reflects and impacts mitochondrial dynamics. Herein, to study the detailed dynamics of mitochondrial membrane and mtDNA, we rationally develop a dual-color fluorescent probe, mtGLP, that could be used for simultaneously monitoring mitochondrial membrane and mtDNA dynamics via separate color outputs. By combining mtGLP with structured illumination microscopy to monitor mitochondrial dynamics, we discover the formation of nucleoid condensates in damaged mitochondria. We further reveal that nucleoid condensates promoted the peripheral fission of damaged mitochondria via asymmetric segregation. Through simulations, we find that the peripheral fission events occurred when the nucleoid condensates interacted with the highly curved membrane regions at the two ends of the mitochondria. Overall, we show that mitochondrial nucleoid condensates utilize peripheral fission to maintain mitochondrial homeostasis.

Subcellular visualization: Organelle-specific targeted drug delivery and discovery.

Organelles perform critical biological functions due to their distinct molecular composition and internal environment. Disorders in organelles or their interacting networks have been linked to the incidence of numerous diseases, and the research of pharmacological actions at the organelle level has sparked pharmacists' interest. Currently, cell imaging has evolved into a critical tool for drug delivery, drug discovery, and pharmacological research. The introduction of advanced imaging techniques in recent years has provided researchers with richer biological information for viewing and studying the ultrastructure of organelles, protein interactions, and gene transcription activities, leading to the design and delivery of precision-targeted drugs. Therefore, this reviews the research on organelles-targeted drugs based upon imaging technologies and development of fluorescent molecules for medicinal purposes. We also give a thorough analysis of a number of subcellular-level elements of drug development, including subcellular research instruments and methods, organelle biological event investigation, subcellular target and drug identification, and design of subcellular delivery systems. This review will make it possible to promote drug research from the individual/cellular level to the subcellular level, as well as give a new focus based on newly found organelle activities.

Recent advances in fluorescent probes of peroxynitrite: Structural, strategies and biological applications.

Peroxynitrite (ONOO-), owing to its high oxidative and nitrating stress, is associated with several physiological processes in addition to various pathological processes, including those related to neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. Detection of ONOO- at the cellular level is of great significance to understand its pathogenesis. To this end, a variety of fluorescent probes based on small molecules and nanoparticles (NPs) have been engineered and applied as excellent tools for imaging of ONOO- in cells as well as in their diverse biological applications. In this review, we highlight representative cases of fluorescent probes based on recognition mechanism and emphasize their response type (ratiometric, two-photon, long-wavelength/near-infrared, and targeting) in ONOO- detection in the last five years. We further discuss their design strategy, sensing mechanism, and application in bio-imaging and describe NP-based probes according to diverse nanoplatforms.

Single Image Capture of Bioactive Ion Crosstalk within Inter-Organelle Membrane Contacts at Nanometer Resolution.

Rapid bioactive ion exchange is a form of communication that regulates a wide range of biological processes. Despite advances in super-resolution optical microscopy, visualizing ion exchange remains challenging due to the extremely fast nature of these events. Here, a "converting a dynamic event into a static image construction" (CDtSC) strategy is developed that uses the color transformation of a single dichromatic molecular probe to visualize bioactive ion inter-organelle exchange in live cells. As a proof of concept, a reactive sulfur species (RSS) is analyzed at the mitochondria-lysosome contact sites (MLCs). A non-toxic and sensitive probe based on coumarin-hemicyanine structure is designed that responds to RSS localized in both mitochondria and lysosomes while fluorescing different colors. Using this probe, RSS give-and-take at MLCs is visualized, thus providing the first evidence that RSS is involved in inter-organelle contacts and communication. Taken together, the CDtSC provides a strategy to visualize and analyze rapid inter-organelle ion exchange events in live cells at nanometer resolution.

Lysosome-Targeted Biosensor for the Super-Resolution Imaging of Lysosome-Mitochondrion Interaction.

Background: The interaction between lysosomes and mitochondria includes not only mitophagy but also mitochondrion-lysosome contact (MLC) that enables the two organelles to exchange materials and information. In our study, we synthesised a biosensor with fluorescence characteristics that can image lysosomes for structured illumination microscopy and, in turn, examined morphological changes in mitochondria and the phenomenon of MLC under pathological conditions. Methods: After designing and synthesising the biosensor, dubbed CNN, we performed an assay with a Cell Counting Kit-8 to detect CNN's toxicity in relation to H9C2 cardiomyocytes. We next analysed the co-localisation of CNN and the commercial lysosomal probe LTG in cells, qualitatively analysed the imaging characteristics of CNN in different cells (i.e. H9C2, HeLa and HepG2 cells) via structured illumination microscopy and observed how CNN entered cells at different temperatures and levels of endocytosis. Last, we treated the H9C2 cells with mannitol or glucose to observe the morphological changes of mitochondria and their positions relative to lysosomes. Results: After we endocytosed CNN, a lysosome-targeted biosensor with a wide, stable pH response range, into cells in an energy-dependent manner. SIM also revealed that conditions in high glucose induced stress in lysosomes and changed the morphology of mitochondria from elongated strips to round spheres. Conclusion: CNN is a new tool for tracking lysosomes in living cells, both physiologically and pathologically, and showcases new options for the design of similar biosensors.

Prefused lysosomes cluster on autophagosomes regulated by VAMP8.

Lysosome-autophagosome fusion is critical to autophagosome maturation. Although several proteins that regulate this fusion process have been identified, the prefusion architecture and its regulation remain unclear. Herein, we show that upon stimulation, multiple lysosomes form clusters around individual autophagosomes, setting the stage for membrane fusion. The soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) protein on lysosomes-vesicle-associated membrane protein 8 (VAMP8)-plays an important role in forming this prefusion state of lysosomal clusters. To study the potential role of phosphorylation on spontaneous fusion, we investigated the effect of phosphorylation of C-terminal residues of VAMP8. Using a phosphorylation mimic, we observed a decrease of fusion in an ensemble lipid mixing assay and an increase of unfused lysosomes associated with autophagosomes. These results suggest that phosphorylation not only reduces spontaneous fusion for minimizing autophagic flux under normal conditions, but also preassembles multiple lysosomes to increase the fusion probability for resuming autophagy upon stimulation. VAMP8 phosphorylation may thus play an important role in chemotherapy drug resistance by influencing autophagosome maturation.

A Continuous Add-On Probe Reveals the Nonlinear Enlargement of Mitochondria in Light-Activated Oncosis.

Oncosis, depending on DNA damage and mitochondrial swelling, is an important approach for treating cancer and other diseases. However, little is known about the behavior of mitochondria during oncosis, due to the lack of probes for in situ visual illumination of the mitochondrial membrane and mtDNA. Herein, a mitochondrial lipid and mtDNA dual-labeled probe, MitoMN, and a continuous add-on assay, are designed to image the dynamic process of mitochondria in conditions that are unobservable with current mitochondrial probes. Meanwhile, the MitoMN can induce oncosis in a light-activated manner, which results in the enlargement of mitochondria and the death of cancer cells. Using structured illumination microscopy (SIM), MitoMN-stained mitochondria with a dual-color response reveals, for the first time, how swelled mitochondria interacts and fuses with each other for a nonlinear enlargement to accelerate oncosis into an irreversible stage. With this sign of irreversible oncosis revealed by MitoMN, oncosis can be segregated into three stages, including before oncosis, initial oncosis, and accelerated oncosis.

A dual-labeling probe to track functional mitochondria-lysosome interactions in live cells.

Mitochondria-lysosome interactions are essential for maintaining intracellular homeostasis. Although various fluorescent probes have been developed to visualize such interactions, they remain unable to label mitochondria and lysosomes simultaneously and dynamically track their interaction. Here, we introduce a cell-permeable, biocompatible, viscosity-responsive, small organic molecular probe, Coupa, to monitor the interaction of mitochondria and lysosomes in living cells. Through a functional fluorescence conversion, Coupa can simultaneously label mitochondria with blue fluorescence and lysosomes with red fluorescence, and the correlation between the red-blue fluorescence intensity indicates the progress of mitochondria-lysosome interplay during mitophagy. Moreover, because its fluorescence is sensitive to viscosity, Coupa allowed us to precisely localize sites of mitochondria-lysosome contact and reveal increases in local viscosity on mitochondria associated with mitochondria-lysosome contact. Thus, our probe represents an attractive tool for the localization and dynamic tracking of functional mitochondria-lysosome interactions in living cells.

Quantitative analysis of interactive behavior of mitochondria and lysosomes using structured illumination microscopy.

Super-resolution optical microscopy has extended the spatial resolution of cell biology from the cellular level to the nanoscale, enabling the observation of the interactive behavior of single mitochondria and lysosomes. Quantitative parametrization of interactions between mitochondria and lysosomes under super-resolution optical microscopy, however, is currently unavailable, which has severely limited our understanding of the molecular machinery underlying mitochondrial functionality. Here, we introduce an M-value to quantitatively investigate mitochondria and lysosome contact (MLC) and mitophagy under structured illumination microscopy. We found that the M-value for an MLC is typically less than 0.4, whereas in mitophagy it ranges from 0.5 to 1.0. This system permits further investigation of the detailed molecular mechanism governing the interactive behavior of mitochondria and lysosomes.

Super-Resolution Tracking of Mitochondrial Dynamics with An Iridium(III) Luminophore.

Combining luminescent transition metal complex with super-resolution microscopy is an excellent strategy for the long-term visualization of the dynamics of subcellular structures in living cells. However, it remains unclear whether iridium(III) complexes are applicable for a particular type of super-resolution technique, structured illumination microscopy (SIM), to image subcellular structures. Herein, an iridium(III) dye, to track mitochondrial dynamics in living cells under SIM is described. The dye demonstrates excellent specificity and photostability and satisfactory cell permeability. While using SIM to image mitochondria, an ≈80 nm resolution is achieved that allows the clear observation of the structure of mitochondrial cristae. The dye is used to monitor and quantify mitochondrial dynamics relative to lysosomes, including fusion involved in mitophagy, and newly discovered mitochondria-lysosome contact (MLC) under different conditions. The MLC remains intact and fusion vanishes when five receptors, p62, NDP52, OPTN, NBR1, and TAX1BP1, are knocked out, suggesting that these two processes are independent.

Lower range of molecular weight of xanthan gum inhibits cartilage matrix destruction via intrinsic bax-mitochondria cytochrome c-caspase pathway.

We have previously reported an application of lower range of molecular weight of xanthan gum (LRWXG) for inhibiting cartilage matrix destruction and preventing mitochondrial damage in rabbit osteoarthritis (OA) model. However, whether LRWXG exerts its anti-OA activity through intrinsic bax-mitochondria cytochrome c-caspase signaling pathway in OA still requires further study. To address this problem, the OA model was induced by anterior cruciate ligament transection (ACLT) in rabbit and then treated with LRWXG. The results showed that LRWXG could inhibit the loss of collagen in cartilage matrix, protect trabecular bone in subchondral, decrease the apoptosis of chondrocytes, down-regulate the expressions of active caspase-9, active caspase-3 and bax, and up-regulate the expression of bcl-2. In addition, LRWXG could up-regulate the expression of cyt-c in mitochondria, while down-regulate the expression of cyt-c in cytoplasm. These findings show that LRWXG inhibits cartilage degradation via an intrinsic bax-mitochondria cytochrome c-caspase pathway in OA.

Recent advances in polysaccharides for osteoarthritis therapy.

The polysaccharides used in the treatment of osteoarthritis (OA) mainly include sodium hyaluronate, chondroitin sulfate, chitosan, xanthan gum, Low molecular weight heparin, alginate and other polysaccharides. This review summarizes the recent advances in the chemistry and biological activities of polysaccharides for the treatment of OA.

Low molecular weight xanthan gum suppresses oxidative stress-induced apoptosis in rabbit chondrocytes.

We have previously reported the application of low molecular weight XG(LM-XG), with molecular weights ranging from 1×106Da to 1.5×106Da for treating osteoarthritis. In this study, we investigated the anti-apoptotic activity of LM-XG under oxidative stress conditions, activated by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-treated chondrocytes in vitro. Chondrocytes were pretreated with various doses of LM-XG (0, 10, 100, 500, or 1000µg/mL) or 1000µg/mL sodium hyaluronate for 12h, and then exposed to 0.5mmol/L H2O2 for another 12h. After treatment, chondrocyte viability was evaluated using a cell counting kit-8; DNA fragmentation was detected using Hoechst33258 staining; the percentage of DNA fragmentation was evaluated using the diphenylamine DNA assay kit; the apoptosis rate was evaluated using flow cytometry; chondrocyte ultra-microscopic morphology was observed using transmission electron microscopy; intracellular reactive oxygen species levels were observed and quantified using 2,7-dichlorofuorescin diacetate, mitochondrial permeability transition analysis was performed using MitoTracker Red CMXRos and 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole staining; and finally, caspase-3 activity was detected by western blot. The results showed that, compared with H2O2-treated chondrocytes, LM-XG improved cell viability, decreased the percentage of DNA fragmentation, reduced the apoptosis rate, decreased the levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species and mitochondrial permeability transition, reverted the morphological damage, and downregulated cleaved caspase-3 levels. These results demonstrate that LM-XG has anti-apoptotic activity in H2O2-treated chondrocytes.

Preparation of Fe2O3-Clorprenaline/Tetraphenylborate Nanospheres and Their Application as Ion Selective Electrode for Determination of Clorprenaline in Pork.

A novel modified ion selective electrode based on Fe2O3-clorprenaline/tetraphenylborate nanospheres (Fe2O3-CLPT NSs) as electroactive materials for the determination of clorprenaline hydrochloride (CLP) is described. The α-Fe2O3 nanoparticles (NPs) were prepared by hydrothermal synthesis, then self-assembled on CLP/tetraphenylborate (TPB) to form Fe2O3-CLPT NSs, which were used as a potentiometric electrode for analyte determination innovatively. The Fe2O3-CLPT NSs modified electrode exhibited a wider concentration range from 1.0 × 10(-7) to 1.0 × 10(-1) mol/L and a lower detection limit of 3.7 × 10(-8) mol/L compared with unmodified electrodes. The selectivity of the modified electrode was evaluated by fixed interference method. The good performance of the modified electrode such as wide pH range (2.4-6.7), fast response time (15 s), and adequate lifetime (14 weeks) indicate the utility of the modified electrode for evaluation of CLP content in various real samples. Finally, the modified electrode was successfully employed to detect CLP in pork samples with satisfactory results. These results demonstrated the Fe2O3-CLPT NSs modified electrode to be a functional and convenient method to the field of potentiometry determination of CLP in real samples.

Preparation of ractopamine-tetraphenylborate complexed nanoparticles used as sensors to rapidly determine ractopamine residues in pork.

In this work, we reported a simple, fast, and sensitive determination of ractopamine (RAC) residues in pork by using novel ractopamine-tetraphenylborate complexed nanoparticles (RT NPs) as sensors. The prepared RT NPs exhibited a fast response time of 10 s, a wide linear range from 0.1 to 1.0 × 10(-7) mol/L, and a very low detection limit of 7.4 × 10(-8) mol/L. The prepared sensor also presents a high selectivity for ractopamine under different pH conditions ranged from 2.85 to 7.18. These results reveal that the fabricated RT NPs can be used as efficient electrochemical sensors to determine ractopamine in animal productions.