Development of a unified method for the determination of legacy and metabolites of current pesticides in serum for exposure assessment.

The use of pesticides is often regarded as a fundamental aspect of conventional agriculture. However, these compounds have gained recognition as some of the oldest and most widely employed xenobiotic contaminants, necessitating effective strategies for human biomonitoring. In this context, a method was developed for the determination of 16 legacy organochlorine pesticides, 6 metabolites of current pesticides (2,4-D, malathion, parathion, fipronil, pyraclostrobin, cypermethrin, permethrin, cyfluthrin), and 1 triazine herbicide (atrazine) in serum. Samples were prepared with water, formic acid, acetonitrile, and ultrasound irradiation, followed by solid-phase extraction with Oasis Prime HLB. Subsequently, metabolites from current pesticides underwent derivatization using MTBSTFA with 1% TBDMSCl for analysis via gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS), employing an SLB-5MS fused silica capillary column. Analytical curves were generated with limits of quantification from 0.3 to 4.0 ng.mL-1. Accuracy ranged from 69 to 124%, and the coefficient of variation from 2 to 28%. Moreover, determining 1-(4-chlorophenyl)-1H-pyrazol-3-ol was suggested as a biomarker for pyraclostrobin biomonitoring. This analytical approach facilitated the determination of both legacy and metabolites of current pesticides in the same serum sample, presenting an interesting and cost-effective option for large cohorts, and multi-omics studies that evaluate time-dependent biomarkers in blood samples, thereby enabling biomonitoring within the same matrix. Furthermore, a proof-of-concept involving 10 volunteers demonstrated exposure to 9 pesticides at mean concentrations measured in ng mL-1, consistent with findings from various biomonitoring initiatives.

Determination of pesticide residues in urine by chromatography-mass spectrometry: methods and applications.

Introduction: Pollution has emerged as a significant threat to humanity, necessitating a thorough evaluation of its impacts. As a result, various methods for human biomonitoring have been proposed as vital tools for assessing, managing, and mitigating exposure risks. Among these methods, urine stands out as the most commonly analyzed biological sample and the primary matrix for biomonitoring studies. Objectives: This review concentrates on exploring the literature concerning residual pesticide determination in urine, utilizing liquid and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry, and its practical applications. Method: The examination focused on methods developed since 2010. Additionally, applications reported between 2015 and 2022 were thoroughly reviewed, utilizing Web of Science as a primary resource. Synthesis: Recent advancements in chromatography-mass spectrometry technology have significantly enhanced the development of multi-residue methods. These determinations are now capable of simultaneously detecting numerous pesticide residues from various chemical and use classes. Furthermore, these methods encompass analytes from a variety of environmental contaminants, offering a comprehensive approach to biomonitoring. These methodologies have been employed across diverse perspectives, including toxicological studies, assessing pesticide exposure in the general population, occupational exposure among farmers, pest control workers, horticulturists, and florists, as well as investigating consequences during pregnancy and childhood, neurodevelopmental impacts, and reproductive disorders. Future directions: Such strategies were essential in examining the health risks associated with exposure to complex mixtures, including pesticides and other relevant compounds, thereby painting a broader and more accurate picture of human exposure. Moreover, the implementation of integrated strategies, involving international research initiatives and biomonitoring programs, is crucial to optimize resource utilization, enhancing efficiency in health risk assessment.

Epigenetic processes involved in response to pesticide exposure in human populations: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

In recent decades, the use of pesticides in agriculture has increased dramatically. This has resulted in these substances being widely dispersed in the environment, contaminating both exposed workers and communities living near agricultural areas and via contaminated foodstuffs. In addition to acute poisoning, chronic exposure to pesticides can lead to molecular changes that are becoming better understood. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess, through a systematic review of the literature, what epigenetic alterations are associated with pesticide exposure. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis including case-control, cohort and cross-sectional observational epidemiological studies to verify the epigenetic changes, such as DNA methylation, histone modification and differential microRNA expression, in humans who had been exposed to any type of pesticide. Articles published between the years 2005 and 2020 were collected. Two different reviewers performed a blind selection of the studies using the Rayyan QCRI software. Post-completion, the data of selected articles were extracted and analyzed. Most of the 28 articles included evaluated global DNA methylation levels, and the most commonly reported epigenetic modification in response to pesticide exposure was global DNA hypomethylation. Meta-analysis revealed a significant negative correlation between Alu methylation levels and ß-hexachlorocyclohexane, p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane and p,p'-dichlorodiphenylethylene levels. In addition, some specific genes were reported to be hypermethylated in promoter regions, such as CDKN2AIGF2, WRAP53α and CDH1, while CDKN2B and H19 were hypomethylated due to pesticide exposure. The expression of microRNAs was also altered in response to pesticides, as miR-223, miR-518d-3p, miR-597, miR-517b and miR-133b that are associated with many human diseases. Therefore, this study provides evidence that pesticide exposure could lead to epigenetic modifications, possibly altering global and gene-specific methylation levels, epigenome-wide methylation and microRNA differential expression.

Analysis of mitochondrial DNA copy number variation in Brazilian farmers occupationally exposed to pesticides.

The use of pesticide use has been linked to the higher production of reactive oxygen species, resulting in oxidative stress, which in turn can cause genomic instability. A marker for instability is the copy number variation of the mitochondrial genome (mtDNAcn), which has been found to be altered in diverse human diseases, including tumors. This research aimed to examine the variation of mtDNAcn in individuals occupationally exposed to pesticides. Real-time PCR assays were conducted on 154 individuals (78 exposed and 76 non-exposed). Pesticide-exposed ndividuals exhibited a significant reduction in mtDNAcn (1.11 ± 0.37mtDNAcn/genome) compared to non-exposed individuals (1.30 ± 0.33mtDNAcn/genome; p = 0.001). The multivariate analysis indicated that individuals who reported using haloxyfop and copper sulfate demonstrated an increase (ß = 0.200, p = 0.053) and a decrease (ß=-0.2, p = 0.021), respectively, in mtDNAcn. In conclusion, our findings suggest that chronic exposure to pesticides results in changes in mtDNAcn.

Hazard assessment of antineoplastic drugs and metabolites using cytotoxicity and genotoxicity assays.

Antineoplastic drugs are among the most toxic pharmaceuticals. Their release into the aquatic ecosystems has been reported, giving rise to concerns about the adverse effects, including cytotoxicity and genotoxicity, that they may have on exposed organisms. In this study, we analyzed the cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) and its metabolite alpha-fluoro-beta-alanine (3-NH2-F); gemcitabine (GEM) and its metabolite 2'-deoxy-2',2'-difluorouridine (2-DOH-DiF); as well as cyclophosphamide (CP) on the HepG2 cell line. Drug concentrations were based on those previously observed in the effluent of a major cancer hospital in Brazil. The study found that GEM, 2-DOH-DiF and 5-FU resulted in reduced cell viability. No reduction in cell viability was observed for CP and 3-NH2-F. Genotoxic assessment revealed damage in the form of nucleoplasmic bridges for CP and 3-NH2-F. The tested concentrations of all compounds resulted in significantly increased MNi and NBUDs. The results showed that these compounds induced cytotoxic and genotoxic effects in HepG2 cells at concentrations found in the environment. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to report on the cytogenotoxic impacts of the metabolites 3-NH2-F and 2-DOH-DiF in HepG2 cells. These findings may help in the development of public policies that could minimize potential environmental contamination.

The Usefulness of an Online Simplified Screening Questionnaire (SSQ) in Identifying Work-Related Cancers.

To obtain a history of occupational exposure in the workplace, the questionnaire is one of the main sources of information. The aim of this study was to develop an online questionnaire using the REDCap data management platform based on the Work-Related Cancer Surveillance Guidelines, reported by the Brazilian National Cancer Institute. Several issues were taken into consideration for its routine application. It should be simple, easy, capable of being applied in a short time and used in the clinical setting of collecting information on the occupational history of the cancer patient. Consequently, this could enable the compulsory notification of work-related cancer. The questionnaire was developed based on questions about the use of and exposure to carcinogenic factors at work and due to smoking. An entirely electronic version of the cancer patient interview was performed using tablets. The online questionnaire was applied at the Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos, to newly diagnosed patients from July 2016 to 2018. A total of 1063 patients were included, and 550 indicated positively when asked "Do you work, or have you worked with this substance and/or in this function?/job?" Of these potentially notified patients, 38 subsequently had compulsorily reported work-related cancer. Another important result of this study was the creation and development of a website. In conclusion, we developed an online tool that could facilitate hospital routines, contributing to generating data for the compulsory notification of work-related cancer and triggering investigations and surveillance actions in Brazil.

Occupational Exposures and Risks of Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma: A Meta-Analysis.

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) is a heterogeneous group with different types of diseases. It remains unclear as to what has led to an increase in incidences of NHL, however, chemical substance exposure is known to be one of the risk factors for the disease. Therefore, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis including case-control, cohort, and cross-sectional observational epidemiological studies to verify the association between occupational exposure to carcinogens and NHL risk. Articles between the years 2000 and 2020 were collected. Two different reviewers performed a blind selection of the studies using the Rayyan QCRI web app. Post-completion, the selected articles were extracted and analyzed via the RedCap platform. Our review resulted in 2719 articles, of which 51 were included in the meta-analysis, resulting in an overall OR of 1.27 (95% CI 1.04-1.55). Furthermore, it was observed that the main occupation associated with the increased risk of NHL was that in which workers are exposed to pesticides. We therefore conclude that the evidence synthesis of the epidemiological literature supports an increased risk for NHL, regardless of subtype, considering occupational exposure to certain chemical compounds, mainly pesticides, benzene, and trichlorethylene, and certain classes of work, primarily in the field of agriculture.

Detection of anti-cancer drugs and metabolites in the effluents from a large Brazilian cancer hospital and an evaluation of ecotoxicology.

The use of chemotherapy agents has been growing worldwide, due to the increase number of cancer cases. In several countries, mainly in Europe countries, these drugs have been detected in hospitals and municipal wastewaters. In Brazil this issue is poorly explored. The main goal of this study was to assess the presence of three anti-cancer drugs, 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), gemcitabine (GEM) and cyclophosphamide (CP), and two metabolites, alpha-fluoro-beta-alanine (3-NH2-F) and 2'-deoxy-2',2'-difluorouridine (2-DOH-DiF), in effluents from a large cancer hospital, in the municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) influent and effluent, and also to evaluate toxicity of the mixtures of these compounds by ecotoxicological testing in zebrafish. The sample collections were performed in Barretos Cancer Hospital of the large cancer center in Brazil. After each collection, the samples were filtered for subsequent Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry analysis. The presence of CP, GEM, and both metabolites (3-NH2-F and 2-DOH-DiF) were detected in the hospital wastewater and the WWTP influent. Three drugs, GEM, 2-DOH-DiF and CP, were detected in the WWTP effluent. Two drugs were detected below the limit of quantification, 2-DOH-DiF:

Evaluation of DNA Methylation Changes and Micronuclei in Workers Exposed to a Construction Environment.

Methylation levels in tumor-suppressor genes and repetitive sequences have previously been used to study the relationship between environmental air pollution and epigenetic changes related to cancer. In this study, we measured the methylation profiles of the promoter regions CDKN2A, MLH1 and APC and the repetitive sequence LINE-1 in 59 workers exposed to the construction environment and in 49 unexposed workers. We also evaluated the micronuclei frequency and levels of trace elements in the blood of all workers. We evaluated of levels of particulate matter and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at the construction site to characterize the environmental exposure. Our findings demonstrated that exposed workers exhibited significantly higher average levels of promoter methylation of CDKN2A, APC, and MLH1 genes and increased hypomethylation of the LINE-1 in comparison to unexposed workers (all p < 0.05). A higher frequency of micronuclei was observed in the exposed group (2 ± 2) compared to the unexposed group (1 ± 1) with p < 0.001. High levels of particulate matter (51⁻841 µg/m³) and some PAHs were found in samples from the construction environment. In summary, we provide evidence of increased DNA damage and altered DNA methylation of exposed workers, suggesting that genomic approaches to biomonitoring may be an effective way of estimating future cancer risk for construction workers.

Isolation of transcripts overexpressed in the human pathogen Trichophyton rubrum grown in lipid as carbon source.

Trichophyton rubrum is the most common etiological agent of human dermatophytosis. Despite the incidence and medical importance of this dermatophyte, little is known about the mechanisms of host invasion and pathogenicity. Host invasion depends on the adaptive cellular responses of the pathogen that allow it to penetrate the skin layers, which are mainly composed of proteins and lipids. In this study, we used suppression subtractive hybridization to identify transcripts overexpressed in T. rubrum cultured in lipid as carbon source. Among the subtractive cDNA clones isolated, 85 clones were positively screened by cDNA array dot blotting and were sequenced. The putative proteins encoded by the isolated transcripts showed similarities to fungal proteins involved in metabolism, signaling, defense, and virulence, such as the MDR/ABC transporter, glucan 1,3-ß-glucosidase, chitin synthase B, copper-sulfate-regulated protein, and serine/threonine phosphatase (calcineurin A). These results provide the first molecular insight into the genes differentially expressed during the adaptation of T. rubrum to a lipidic carbon source.

Transcriptional profiling reveals the expression of novel genes in response to various stimuli in the human dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum.

BACKGROUND: Cutaneous mycoses are common human infections among healthy and immunocompromised hosts, and the anthropophilic fungus Trichophyton rubrum is the most prevalent microorganism isolated from such clinical cases worldwide. The aim of this study was to determine the transcriptional profile of T. rubrum exposed to various stimuli in order to obtain insights into the responses of this pathogen to different environmental challenges. Therefore, we generated an expressed sequence tag (EST) collection by constructing one cDNA library and nine suppression subtractive hybridization libraries. RESULTS: The 1388 unigenes identified in this study were functionally classified based on the Munich Information Center for Protein Sequences (MIPS) categories. The identified proteins were involved in transcriptional regulation, cellular defense and stress, protein degradation, signaling, transport, and secretion, among other functions. Analysis of these unigenes revealed 575 T. rubrum sequences that had not been previously deposited in public databases. CONCLUSION: In this study, we identified novel T. rubrum genes that will be useful for ORF prediction in genome sequencing and facilitating functional genome analysis. Annotation of these expressed genes revealed metabolic adaptations of T. rubrum to carbon sources, ambient pH shifts, and various antifungal drugs used in medical practice. Furthermore, challenging T. rubrum with cytotoxic drugs and ambient pH shifts extended our understanding of the molecular events possibly involved in the infectious process and resistance to antifungal drugs.

Transcriptional profiling reveals genes in the human pathogen Trichophyton rubrum that are expressed in response to pH signaling.

Trichophyton rubrum is a dermatophyte that infects human skin and nails. Its growth on keratin as its carbon source shifts the ambient pH from acidic to alkaline, which may be an efficient strategy for its successful infection and maintenance in the host. In this study, we used suppression subtractive hybridization to identify genes preferentially expressed in T. rubrum incubated at either pH 5.0 or pH 8.0. The functional grouping of the 341 overexpressed unigenes indicated proteins putatively involved in diverse cellular processes, such as membrane remodeling, cellular transport, metabolism, cellular protection, fungal pathogenesis, gene regulation, interaction with the environment, and iron uptake. Although the basic metabolic machinery identified under both growth conditions seems to be functionally similar, distinct genes are upregulated at acidic or alkaline pHs. We also isolated a large number of genes of unknown function, probably unique to T. rubrum or dermatophytes. Interestingly, the transcriptional profiling of several genes in a pacC(-) mutant suggests that, in T. rubrum, the transcription factor PacC has a diversity of metabolic functions, in response to either acidic or alkaline ambient pH.

Transcriptional changes in the nuc-2A mutant strain of Neurospora crassa cultivated under conditions of phosphate shortage.

The molecular mechanism that controls the response to phosphate shortage in Neurospora crassa involves four regulatory genes -nuc-2, preg, pgov, and nuc-1. Phosphate shortage is sensed by the nuc-2 gene, the product of which inhibits the functioning of the PREG-PGOV complex. This allows the translocation of the transcriptional factor NUC-1 into the nucleus, which activates the transcription of phosphate-repressible phosphatases. The nuc-2A mutant strain of N. crassa carries a loss-of-function mutation in the nuc-2 gene, which encodes an ankyrin-like repeat protein. In this study, we identified transcripts that are downregulated in the nuc-2A mutant strain. Functional grouping of these expressed sequence tags allowed the identification of genes that play essential roles in different cellular processes such as transport, transcriptional regulation, signal transduction, metabolism, protein synthesis, protein fate, and development. These results reveal novel aspects of the phosphorus-sensing network in N. crassa.

Identification of genes differentially expressed in a strain of the mold Aspergillus nidulans carrying a loss-of-function mutation in the palA gene.

To identify genes differentially expressed in a strain of the mold Aspergillus nidulans carrying a loss-of-function mutation in palA, a gene in the pH-responsive signal transduction pathway, suppression subtractive hybridization was performed between RNA isolated from the biA1 and biA1 palA1 strains grown under limiting inorganic phosphate at pH 5.0. We have identified several genes upregulated in the biA1 palA1 mutant strain that play important roles in mitotic fidelity, stress responses, enzyme secretion, signal transduction mechanisms, development, genome stability, phosphate sensing, and transcriptional regulation among others. The upregulation of eight of these transcripts was also validated by Northern blot. Moreover, we show that a loss of function mutation in the palA gene drastically reduced the neutral sugar content of the acid phosphatase PacA secreted by the fungus A. nidulans grown at pH 5.0 compared with a control strain.

Identification of genes displaying differential expression in the nuc-2 mutant strain of the mold Neurospora crassa grown under phosphate starvation.

Subtractive hybridization was used to isolate transcripts up-regulated in the nuc-2 mutant strain of Neurospora crassa grown under phosphate starvation. Following differential screening, 66 cDNA clones of the total enriched were screened in a second round by reverse Northern hybridization. The 17 cDNA candidates displaying visual positive differential expression were sequenced, and functional grouping identified putative proteins possibly involved in diverse cellular processes as, for example, protein synthesis, signal transduction mechanisms, and transport facilitation. Four of them, confirmed by both virtual and Northern blot analyses, revealed genes involved in the initiation of mRNA translation that are significantly up-regulated in the nuc-2 mutant strain, which may be relevant to a further understanding of the molecular events involved in the phosphorus sensing in N. crassa.

The pH signaling transcription factor PacC mediates the growth of Trichophyton rubrum on human nail in vitro.

We report here the isolation, molecular cloning and initial characterization of the Trichophytonrubrum pacC gene, which encodes a putative protein that is homologous to the PacC/Rim101p family of pH signaling transcription regulators. The promoter region of the T. rubrumpacC gene contains four recognition sites 5'-GCCAAG-3' for the PacC protein, suggesting that the transcription of this gene itself could be induced under alkaline growth conditions. The enhanced expression profile of the T. rubrumpacC gene in an alkaline environment was confirmed by Northern blotting analysis. We also report that the disruption of pacC gene decreased both the secretion of keratinolytic proteases and the ability of the mutant pacC-1 to grow on human nail fragments as the sole source of nutrition, i.e., growth of the dermatophyte T. rubrum appear to be related to molecular events which depend on the action of protein PacC.

Analysis and functional annotation of an expressed sequence tag collection for tropical crop sugarcane.

To contribute to our understanding of the genome complexity of sugarcane, we undertook a large-scale expressed sequence tag (EST) program. More than 260,000 cDNA clones were partially sequenced from 26 standard cDNA libraries generated from different sugarcane tissues. After the processing of the sequences, 237,954 high-quality ESTs were identified. These ESTs were assembled into 43,141 putative transcripts. Of the assembled sequences, 35.6% presented no matches with existing sequences in public databases. A global analysis of the whole SUCEST data set indicated that 14,409 assembled sequences (33% of the total) contained at least one cDNA clone with a full-length insert. Annotation of the 43,141 assembled sequences associated almost 50% of the putative identified sugarcane genes with protein metabolism, cellular communication/signal transduction, bioenergetics, and stress responses. Inspection of the translated assembled sequences for conserved protein domains revealed 40,821 amino acid sequences with 1415 Pfam domains. Reassembling the consensus sequences of the 43,141 transcripts revealed a 22% redundancy in the first assembling. This indicated that possibly 33,620 unique genes had been identified and indicated that >90% of the sugarcane expressed genes were tagged.