PLGA Based Nanospheres as a Potent Macrophage-Specific Drug Delivery System.

Macrophages possess an innate ability to scavenge heterogenous objects from the systemic circulation and to regulate inflammatory diseases in various organs via cytokine production. That makes them attractive targets for nanomedicine-based therapeutic approaches to inflammatory diseases. In the present study, we have prepared several different poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) polymer nanospheres for macrophage-targeted drug delivery using both nanoprecipitation and emulsification solvent evaporation methods. Two experimental linear PLGA polymers with relatively low molar weight, one experimental branched PLGA with unique star-like molecular architecture, and a commercially available PLGA, were used for nanosphere formulation and compared to their macrophage uptake capacity. The nanosphere formulations labelled with loaded fluorescent dye Rhodamine B were further tested in mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages and in hepatocyte cell lines AML-12, HepG2. We found that nanospheres larger than 100 nm prepared using nanoprecipitation significantly enhanced distribution of fluorescent dye selectively into macrophages. No effects of nanospheres on cellular viability were observed. Additionally, no significant proinflammatory effect after macrophage exposure to nanospheres was detected as assessed by a determination of proinflammatory cytokines Il-1ß and Tnfα mRNA. All experimental PLGA nanoformulations surpassed the nanospheres obtained with the commercially available polymer taken as a control in their capacity as macrophage-specific carriers.

Bacterial resistance to silver nanoparticles and how to overcome it.

Silver nanoparticles have already been successfully applied in various biomedical and antimicrobial technologies and products used in everyday life. Although bacterial resistance to antibiotics has been extensively discussed in the literature, the possible development of resistance to silver nanoparticles has not been fully explored. We report that the Gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli 013, Pseudomonas aeruginosa CCM 3955 and E. coli CCM 3954 can develop resistance to silver nanoparticles after repeated exposure. The resistance stems from the production of the adhesive flagellum protein flagellin, which triggers the aggregation of the nanoparticles. This resistance evolves without any genetic changes; only phenotypic change is needed to reduce the nanoparticles' colloidal stability and thus eliminate their antibacterial activity. The resistance mechanism cannot be overcome by additional stabilization of silver nanoparticles using surfactants or polymers. It is, however, strongly suppressed by inhibiting flagellin production with pomegranate rind extract.

Silver nanoparticles strongly enhance and restore bactericidal activity of inactive antibiotics against multiresistant Enterobacteriaceae.

Bacterial resistance to conventional antibiotics is currently one of the most important healthcare issues, and has serious negative impacts on medical practice. This study presents a potential solution to this problem, using the strong synergistic effects of antibiotics combined with silver nanoparticles (NPs). Silver NPs inhibit bacterial growth via a multilevel mode of antibacterial action at concentrations ranging from a few ppm to tens of ppm. Silver NPs strongly enhanced antibacterial activity against multiresistant, ß-lactamase and carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae when combined with the following antibiotics: cefotaxime, ceftazidime, meropenem, ciprofloxacin and gentamicin. All the antibiotics, when combined with silver NPs, showed enhanced antibacterial activity at concentrations far below the minimum inhibitory concentrations (tenths to hundredths of one ppm) of individual antibiotics and silver NPs. The enhanced activity of antibiotics combined with silver NPs, especially meropenem, was weaker against non-resistant bacteria than against resistant bacteria. The double disk synergy test showed that bacteria produced no ß-lactamase when treated with antibiotics combined with silver NPs. Low silver concentrations were required for effective enhancement of antibacterial activity against multiresistant bacteria. These low silver concentrations showed no cytotoxic effect towards mammalian cells, an important feature for potential medical applications.

Enhanced antibacterial effect of antibiotics in combination with silver nanoparticles against animal pathogens.

Antibiotic resistant bacteria are a serious health risk in both human and veterinary medicine. Several studies have shown that silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) exert a high level of antibacterial activity against antibiotic resistant strains in humans. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antibacterial effects of a combined therapy of AgNPs and antibiotics against veterinary bacteria that show resistance to antibiotics. A microdilution checkerboard method was used to determine the minimal inhibitory concentrations of both types of antimicrobials, alone and in combination. The fractional inhibitory concentration index was calculated and used to classify observed collective antibacterial activity as synergistic, additive (only the sum of separate effects of drugs), indifferent (no effect) or antagonistic. From the 40 performed tests, seven were synergistic, 17 additive and 16 indifferent. None of the tested combinations showed an antagonistic effect. The majority of synergistic effects were observed for combinations of AgNPs given together with gentamicin, but the highest enhancement of antibacterial activity was found with combined therapy together with penicillin G against Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae. A. pleuropneumoniae and Pasteurella multocida originally resistant to amoxycillin, gentamicin and colistin were sensitive to these antibiotics when combined with AgNPs. The study shows that AgNPs have potential as adjuvants for the treatment of animal bacterial diseases.

Strong and Nonspecific Synergistic Antibacterial Efficiency of Antibiotics Combined with Silver Nanoparticles at Very Low Concentrations Showing No Cytotoxic Effect.

The resistance of bacteria towards traditional antibiotics currently constitutes one of the most important health care issues with serious negative impacts in practice. Overcoming this issue can be achieved by using antibacterial agents with multimode antibacterial action. Silver nano-particles (AgNPs) are one of the well-known antibacterial substances showing such multimode antibacterial action. Therefore, AgNPs are suitable candidates for use in combinations with traditional antibiotics in order to improve their antibacterial action. In this work, a systematic study quantifying the synergistic effects of antibiotics with different modes of action and different chemical structures in combination with AgNPs against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus was performed. Employing the microdilution method as more suitable and reliable than the disc diffusion method, strong synergistic effects were shown for all tested antibiotics combined with AgNPs at very low concentrations of both antibiotics and AgNPs. No trends were observed for synergistic effects of antibiotics with different modes of action and different chemical structures in combination with AgNPs, indicating non-specific synergistic effects. Moreover, a very low amount of silver is needed for effective antibacterial action of the antibiotics, which represents an important finding for potential medical applications due to the negligible cytotoxic effect of AgNPs towards human cells at these concentration levels.