RESUMEN
Background: Estimation of glomerular filtration rate using equations based on creatinine is widely used to manage chronic kidney disease. In the UK, the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration creatinine equation is recommended. Other published equations using cystatin C, an alternative marker of kidney function, have not gained widespread clinical acceptance. Given higher cost of cystatin C, its clinical utility should be validated before widespread introduction into the NHS. Objectives: Primary objectives were to: (1) compare accuracy of glomerular filtration rate equations at baseline and longitudinally in people with stage 3 chronic kidney disease, and test whether accuracy is affected by ethnicity, diabetes, albuminuria and other characteristics; (2) establish the reference change value for significant glomerular filtration rate changes; (3) model disease progression; and (4) explore comparative cost-effectiveness of kidney disease monitoring strategies. Design: A longitudinal, prospective study was designed to: (1) assess accuracy of glomerular filtration rate equations at baseline (nâ =â 1167) and their ability to detect change over 3 years (nâ =â 875); (2) model disease progression predictors in 278 individuals who received additional measurements; (3) quantify glomerular filtration rate variability components (nâ =â 20); and (4) develop a measurement model analysis to compare different monitoring strategy costs (nâ =â 875). Setting: Primary, secondary and tertiary care. Participants: Adults (≥ 18 years) with stage 3 chronic kidney disease. Interventions: Estimated glomerular filtration rate using the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration and Modification of Diet in Renal Disease equations. Main outcome measures: Measured glomerular filtration rate was the reference against which estimating equations were compared with accuracy being expressed as P30 (percentage of values within 30% of reference) and progression (variously defined) studied as sensitivity/specificity. A regression model of disease progression was developed and differences for risk factors estimated. Biological variation components were measured and the reference change value calculated. Comparative costs of monitoring with different estimating equations modelled over 10 years were calculated. Results: Accuracy (P30) of all equations was ≥ 89.5%: the combined creatinine-cystatin equation (94.9%) was superior (pâ <â 0.001) to other equations. Within each equation, no differences in P30 were seen across categories of age, gender, diabetes, albuminuria, body mass index, kidney function level and ethnicity. All equations showed poor (< 63%) sensitivity for detecting patients showing kidney function decline crossing clinically significant thresholds (e.g. a 25% decline in function). Consequently, the additional cost of monitoring kidney function annually using a cystatin C-based equation could not be justified (incremental cost per patient over 10 yearsâ =â £43.32). Modelling data showed association between higher albuminuria and faster decline in measured and creatinine-estimated glomerular filtration rate. Reference change values for measured glomerular filtration rate (%, positive/negative) were 21.5/-17.7, with lower reference change values for estimated glomerular filtration rate. Limitations: Recruitment of people from South Asian and African-Caribbean backgrounds was below the study target. Future work: Prospective studies of the value of cystatin C as a risk marker in chronic kidney disease should be undertaken. Conclusions: Inclusion of cystatin C in glomerular filtration rate-estimating equations marginally improved accuracy but not detection of disease progression. Our data do not support cystatin C use for monitoring of glomerular filtration rate in stage 3 chronic kidney disease. Trial registration: This trial is registered as ISRCTN42955626. Funding: This award was funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Health Technology Assessment programme (NIHR award ref: 11/103/01) and is published in full in Health Technology Assessment; Vol. 28, No. 35. See the NIHR Funding and Awards website for further award information.
Chronic kidney disease, which affects approximately 14% of the adult population, often has no symptoms but, in some people, may later develop into kidney failure. Kidney disease is most often detected using a blood test called creatinine. Creatinine does not identify everyone with kidney disease, or those most likely to develop more serious kidney disease. An alternative blood test called cystatin C may be more accurate, but it is more expensive than the creatinine test. We compared the accuracy of these two tests in more than 1000 people with moderate kidney disease. Participants were tested over 3 years to see if the tests differed in their ability to detect worsening kidney function. We also wanted to identify risk factors associated with loss of kidney function, and how much the tests normally vary to better understand what results mean. We compared the accuracy and costs of monitoring people with the two markers. Cystatin C was found slightly more accurate than the creatinine test at estimating kidney function when comparing the baseline single measurements (95% accurate compared to 90%), but not at detecting worsening function over time. This means that the additional cost of monitoring people over time with cystatin C to detect kidney disease progression could not be justified. Kidney test results could vary by up to 20% between tests without necessarily implying changes in underlying kidney function this is the normal level of individual variation. Cystatin C marginally improved accuracy of kidney function testing but not ability to detect worsening kidney function. Cystatin C improves identification of moderate chronic kidney disease, but our results do not support its use for routine monitoring of kidney function in such patients.
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Creatinina , Cistatina C , Progresión de la Enfermedad , Tasa de Filtración Glomerular , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica , Humanos , Cistatina C/sangre , Creatinina/sangre , Masculino , Femenino , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/fisiopatología , Persona de Mediana Edad , Anciano , Estudios Prospectivos , Estudios Longitudinales , Biomarcadores , Análisis Costo-Beneficio , Adulto , Reino Unido , AlbuminuriaRESUMEN
Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Clinical Practice Guideline for the Evaluation and Management of Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) updates the KDIGO 2012 guideline and has been developed with patient partners, clinicians, and researchers around the world, using robust methodology. This update, based on a substantially broader base of evidence than has previously been available, reflects an exciting time in nephrology. New therapies and strategies have been tested in large and diverse populations that help to inform care; however, this guideline is not intended for people receiving dialysis nor those who have a kidney transplant. The document is sensitive to international considerations, CKD across the lifespan, and discusses special considerations in implementation. The scope includes chapters dedicated to the evaluation and risk assessment of people with CKD, management to delay CKD progression and its complications, medication management and drug stewardship in CKD, and optimal models of CKD care. Treatment approaches and actionable guideline recommendations are based on systematic reviews of relevant studies and appraisal of the quality of the evidence and the strength of recommendations which followed the "Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation" (GRADE) approach. The limitations of the evidence are discussed. The guideline also provides practice points, which serve to direct clinical care or activities for which a systematic review was not conducted, and it includes useful infographics and describes an important research agenda for the future. It targets a broad audience of people with CKD and their healthcare, while being mindful of implications for policy and payment.
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Humanos , Niño , Adulto , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/diagnóstico , Anemia/terapia , Albúmina Sérica/análisis , Inhibidores de la Enzima Convertidora de Angiotensina/uso terapéutico , Creatinina/análisis , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/tratamiento farmacológico , Inhibidores del Cotransportador de Sodio-Glucosa 2/uso terapéutico , Control Glucémico , Tasa de Filtración GlomerularRESUMEN
The Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Clinical Practice Guideline for the Evaluation and Management of Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) updates the KDIGO 2012 guideline and has been developed with patient partners, clinicians, and researchers around the world, using robust methodology. This update, based on a substantially broader base of evidence than has previously been available, reflects an exciting time in nephrology. New therapies and strategies have been tested in large and diverse populations that help to inform care; however, this guideline is not intended for people receiving dialysis nor those who have a kidney transplant. The document is sensitive to international considerations, CKD across the lifespan, and discusses special considerations in implementation. The scope includes chapters dedicated to the evaluation and risk assessment of people with CKD, management to delay CKD progression and its complications, medication management and drug stewardship in CKD, and optimal models of CKD care. Treatment approaches and actionable guideline recommendations are based on systematic reviews of relevant studies and appraisal of the quality of the evidence and the strength of recommendations which followed the "Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation" (GRADE) approach. The limitations of the evidence are discussed. The guideline also provides practice points, which serve to direct clinical care or activities for which a systematic review was not conducted, and it includes useful infographics and describes an important research agenda for the future. It targets a broad audience of people with CKD and their healthcare, while being mindful of implications for policy and payment.
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Trasplante de Riñón , Nefrología , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica , Humanos , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/diagnóstico , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/terapia , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/complicaciones , Trasplante de Riñón/efectos adversos , Diálisis Renal/efectos adversosRESUMEN
Kidney disease is an important public health problem. Both acute kidney injury (AKI) and chronic kidney disease have been well defined and classified, leading to improved research efforts and subsequent management strategies and recommendations. For those patients with abnormalities in kidney function and/or structure who meet neither the definition of AKI nor chronic kidney disease, there remains a gap in research, care, and guidance. The term acute kidney diseases and disorders, abbreviated to acute kidney disease (AKD), has been introduced as an important construct to address this. To expand and harmonize existing definitions and to ultimately better inform research and clinical care, Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) organized a consensus workshop. Multiple invitees from around the globe, representing both acute and chronic kidney disease researchers and experts, met virtually to examine existing data, and discuss key concepts related to AKD. Despite some remaining unresolved questions, conference attendees reached general consensus on the definition and classification of AKD, management strategies, and research priorities. AKD is defined by abnormalities of kidney function and/or structure with implications for health and with a duration of ≤3 months. AKD may include AKI, but, more importantly, also includes abnormalities in kidney function that are not as severe as AKI or that develop over a period of >7 days. The cause(s) of AKD should be sought, and classification includes functional and structural parameters. Management of AKD is currently based on empirical considerations. A robust research agenda to enable refinement and validation of definitions and classification systems, and thus testing of interventions and strategies, is proposed.
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Lesión Renal Aguda , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica , Enfermedad Aguda , Lesión Renal Aguda/diagnóstico , Lesión Renal Aguda/epidemiología , Lesión Renal Aguda/terapia , Consenso , Humanos , Riñón , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/diagnóstico , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/epidemiología , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/terapiaRESUMEN
When assessing changes in glomerular filtration rate (GFR) it is important to differentiate pathological change from intrinsic biological and analytical variation. GFR is measured using complex reference methods (e.g., iohexol clearance). In clinical practice measurement of creatinine and cystatin C are used in the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease [MDRD] or Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration [CKD-EPI] equations to provide estimated GFR. Here we studied the biological variability of measured and estimated GFR in twenty nephrology outpatients (10 male, 10 female; median age 71, range 50-80 years) with moderate CKD (GFR 30-59 ml/min per 1.73 m2). Patients underwent weekly GFR measurement by iohexol clearance over four consecutive weeks. Simultaneously, GFR was estimated using the MDRD, CKD-EPIcreatinine, CKD-EPIcystatinC and CKD-EPIcreatinine+cystatinC equations. Within-subject biological variation expressed as a percentage [95% confidence interval] for the MDRD (5.0% [4.3-6.1]), CKD-EPIcreatinine (5.3% [4.5-6.4]), CKD-EPIcystatinC (5.3% [4.5-6.5]), and CKD-EPIcreatinine+cystatinC (5.0% [4.3-6.2]) equations were broadly equivalent. The within-subject biological variation for MDRD and CKD- EPIcreatinine+cystatinC estimated GFR were each significantly lower than that of the measured GFR (6.7% [5.6-8.2]). Reference change values, the point at which a true change in a biomarker in an individual can be inferred to have occurred with 95% probability were calculated. By the MDRD equation, positive and negative reference change values were 15.1% and 13.1% respectively. If an individual's baseline MDRD estimated GFR (ml/min per 1.73 m2) was 59, significant increases or decreases would be to values over 68 or under 51 respectively. Within-subject variability of estimated GFR was lower than measured GFR. Reference change values can be used to understand GFR changes in clinical practice. Thus, estimates of GFR are at least as reliable as measured GFR for monitoring patients over time.
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Tasa de Filtración Glomerular , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/fisiopatología , Anciano , Anciano de 80 o más Años , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Estándares de ReferenciaRESUMEN
Globally, the number of patients undergoing maintenance dialysis is increasing, yet throughout the world there is significant variability in the practice of initiating dialysis. Factors such as availability of resources, reasons for starting dialysis, timing of dialysis initiation, patient education and preparedness, dialysis modality and access, as well as varied "country-specific" factors significantly affect patient experiences and outcomes. As the burden of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) has increased globally, there has also been a growing recognition of the importance of patient involvement in determining the goals of care and decisions regarding treatment. In January 2018, KDIGO (Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes) convened a Controversies Conference focused on dialysis initiation, including modality choice, access, and prescription. Here we present a summary of the conference discussions, including identified knowledge gaps, areas of controversy, and priorities for research. A major novel theme represented during the conference was the need to move away from a "one-size-fits-all" approach to dialysis and provide more individualized care that incorporates patient goals and preferences while still maintaining best practices for quality and safety. Identifying and including patient-centered goals that can be validated as quality indicators in the context of diverse health care systems to achieve equity of outcomes will require alignment of goals and incentives between patients, providers, regulators, and payers that will vary across health care jurisdictions.
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Congresos como Asunto , Fallo Renal Crónico/terapia , Participación del Paciente , Guías de Práctica Clínica como Asunto , Diálisis Renal/normas , Toma de Decisiones Clínicas/métodos , Toma de Decisiones Conjunta , Humanos , Fallo Renal Crónico/diagnóstico , Planificación de Atención al Paciente/normas , Prioridad del Paciente , Diálisis Renal/instrumentación , Diálisis Renal/métodos , Tiempo de TratamientoRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Circulating asymmetric dimethylarginine and symmetric dimethylarginine are increased in patients with kidney disease. Symmetric dimethylarginine is considered a good marker of glomerular filtration rate, while asymmetric dimethylarginine is a marker of cardiovascular risk. However, a link between symmetric dimethylarginine and all-cause mortality has been reported. In the present study, we evaluated both dimethylarginines as risk and glomerular filtration rate markers in a cohort of elderly white individuals, both with and without chronic kidney disease. METHODS: Glomerular filtration rate was measured in 394 individuals aged >74 years using an iohexol clearance method. Plasma asymmetric dimethylarginine, symmetric dimethylarginine and iohexol were measured simultaneously using isotope dilution tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS: Plasma asymmetric dimethylarginine concentrations were increased ( P < 0.01) in people with glomerular filtration rate <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 compared with those with glomerular filtration rate ≥60 mL/min/1.73 m2, but did not differ ( P > 0.05) between those with glomerular filtration rate 30-59 mL/min/1.73 m2 and <30 mL/min/1.73 m2. Plasma symmetric dimethylarginine increased consistently across declining glomerular filtration rate categories ( P < 0.0001). Glomerular filtration rate had an independent effect on plasma asymmetric dimethylarginine concentration, while glomerular filtration rate, gender, body mass index and haemoglobin had independent effects on plasma symmetric dimethylarginine concentration. Participants were followed up for a median of 33 months. There were 65 deaths. High plasma asymmetric dimethylarginine ( P = 0.0412) and symmetric dimethylarginine ( P < 0.0001) concentrations were independently associated with reduced survival. CONCLUSIONS: Among elderly white individuals with a range of kidney function, symmetric dimethylarginine was a better marker of glomerular filtration rate and a stronger predictor of outcome than asymmetric dimethylarginine. Future studies should further evaluate the role of symmetric dimethylarginine as a marker of outcome and assess its potential value as a marker of glomerular filtration rate.
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Arginina/análogos & derivados , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/sangre , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/mortalidad , Anciano , Anciano de 80 o más Años , Arginina/sangre , Biomarcadores/sangre , Estudios de Cohortes , Femenino , Tasa de Filtración Glomerular , Humanos , Masculino , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/diagnóstico , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/fisiopatología , Medición de RiesgoRESUMEN
Patients with severely decreased glomerular filtration rate (GFR) (i.e., chronic kidney disease [CKD] G4+) are at increased risk for kidney failure, cardiovascular disease (CVD) events (including heart failure), and death. However, little is known about the variability of outcomes and optimal therapeutic strategies, including initiation of kidney replacement therapy (KRT). Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) organized a Controversies Conference with an international expert group in December 2016 to address this gap in knowledge. In collaboration with the CKD Prognosis Consortium (CKD-PC) a global meta-analysis of cohort studies (n = 264,515 individuals with CKD G4+) was conducted to better understand the timing of clinical outcomes in patients with CKD G4+ and risk factors for different outcomes. The results confirmed the prognostic value of traditional CVD risk factors in individuals with severely decreased GFR, although the risk estimates vary for kidney and CVD outcomes. A 2- and 4-year model of the probability and timing of kidney failure requiring KRT was also developed. The implications of these findings for patient management were discussed in the context of published evidence under 4 key themes: management of CKD G4+, diagnostic and therapeutic challenges of heart failure, shared decision-making, and optimization of clinical trials in CKD G4+ patients. Participants concluded that variable prognosis of patients with advanced CKD mandates individualized, risk-based management, factoring in competing risks and patient preferences.
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Tasa de Filtración Glomerular , Riñón/fisiopatología , Nefrología/normas , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/terapia , Toma de Decisiones Clínicas , Consenso , Medicina Basada en la Evidencia/normas , Humanos , Pronóstico , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/diagnóstico , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/mortalidad , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/fisiopatología , Factores de Riesgo , Índice de Severidad de la EnfermedadRESUMEN
Surveillance of chronic kidney disease (CKD) prevalence over time and information on how changing risk factors influence this trend are needed to evaluate the effects of general practice and public health interventions. Because very few studies addressed this, we studied the total adult population of a demographically stable county representative of Norway using cross-sectional studies 10 years apart (Nord-Trøndelag Health Study (HUNT)2 and Nord-Trøndelag Health Study (HUNT)3, 65,237 and 50,586 participants, respectively). Thorough quality-control procedures and comparisons of methods over time excluded analytical drift, and multiple imputations of missing data combined with nonattendance weights contributed to unbiased estimates. CKD prevalence remained stable in Norway from 1995 through 1997 (11.3%) to 2006 through 2008 (11.1%). The association of survey period with CKD prevalence was modified by a strong decrease in blood pressure, more physical activity, and lower cholesterol levels. Without these improvements, a 2.8, 0.7, and 0.6 percentage points higher CKD prevalence could have been expected, respectively. In contrast, the prevalence of diabetes and obesity increased moderately, but the proportion of diabetic patients with CKD decreased significantly (from 33.4% to 28.6%). A CKD prevalence of 1 percentage point lower would have been expected without these changes. Thus, CKD prevalence remained stable in Norway for more than a decade in association with marked improvements in blood pressure, lipid levels, and physical activity and despite modest increases in diabetes and obesity.
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Enfermedades Cardiovasculares/epidemiología , Diabetes Mellitus/epidemiología , Obesidad/epidemiología , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/epidemiología , Adulto , Anciano , Albuminuria/orina , Presión Sanguínea , Enfermedades Cardiovasculares/sangre , Enfermedades Cardiovasculares/complicaciones , Estudios Transversales , Inglaterra/epidemiología , Femenino , Tasa de Filtración Glomerular , Humanos , Lípidos/sangre , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Noruega/epidemiología , Obesidad/complicaciones , Prevalencia , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/complicaciones , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/orina , Ajuste de Riesgo , Factores de Riesgo , Conducta de Reducción del Riesgo , Encuestas y Cuestionarios , Estados Unidos/epidemiologíaRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Identification of acute kidney injury (AKI) is predominantly based on changes in plasma creatinine concentration, an insensitive marker. Alternative biomarkers have been proposed. The reference change value (RCV), the point at which biomarker change can be inferred to have occurred with statistical certainty, provides an objective assessment of change in serial tests results in an individual. METHODS: In 80 patients with chronic kidney disease, weekly measurements of blood and urinary biomarker concentrations were undertaken over 6 weeks. Variability was determined and compared before and after adjustment for urinary creatinine and across subgroups stratified by level of kidney function, proteinuria, and presence or absence of diabetes. RESULTS: RCVs were determined for whole blood, plasma, and urinary neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (111%, 59%, and 693%, respectively), plasma cystatin C (14%), creatinine (17%), and urinary kidney injury molecule 1 (497%), tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 2 (454%), N-acetyl-ß-d-glucosaminidase (361%), interleukin-18 (819%), albumin (430%), and α1-microglobulin (216%). Blood biomarkers exhibited lower variability than urinary biomarkers. Generally, adjusting urinary biomarker concentrations for creatinine reduced (P < 0.05) within-subject biological variability (CVI). For some markers, variation differed (P < 0.05) between subgroups. CONCLUSIONS: These data can form a basis for application of these tests in clinical practice and research studies and are applicable across different levels of kidney function and proteinuria and in the presence or absence of diabetes. Most of the studied biomarkers have relatively high CVI (noise) but also have reported large concentration changes in response to renal insult (signal); thus progressive change should be detectable (high signal-to-noise ratio) when baseline data are available.
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Lesión Renal Aguda/sangre , Lesión Renal Aguda/orina , Creatinina/sangre , Creatinina/orina , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/sangre , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/orina , Adulto , Anciano , Anciano de 80 o más Años , Biomarcadores/sangre , Biomarcadores/orina , Femenino , Humanos , Pruebas de Función Renal , Masculino , Persona de Mediana EdadRESUMEN
UNLABELLED: ⦠BACKGROUND: Small solute clearance, especially that derived from residual renal function (RRF), is an independent risk factor for death in peritoneal dialysis (PD) patients. Assessment of solute clearance is time-consuming and prone to multiple errors. Cystatin C is a small protein which has been used as a glomerular filtration rate (GFR) marker. We investigated whether serum cystatin C concentrations are related to mortality in patients receiving PD. ⦠METHODS: New and prevalent PD patients (n = 235) underwent assessment of Kt/Vurea, RRF, weekly creatinine clearance (CCr), normalized protein catabolic rate (nPCR) and a peritoneal equilibration test (PET) at intervals. Blood was collected simultaneously for cystatin C measurement. Patients were followed for a median of 1,429 days (range 12 to 2,964 days) until death or study closure. Cause of death was recorded where given. Cox regression was performed to determine whether cystatin C had prognostic value either independently or with adjustment for other factors (age, sex, dialysis modality, diabetic status, cardiovascular comorbidity, Kt/V, CCr, RRF, nPCR or 4 h dialysate to plasma creatinine ratio (4 h D/Pcr) during the PET). The primary outcomes were all-cause mortality and treatment failure. ⦠RESULTS: There were 93 deaths. Increasing age and 4 h D/Pcr ratio, decreased RRF and presence of diabetes were significantly [p < 0.05] negatively associated with survival and treatment failure. Serum cystatin C was not related to either outcome. ⦠CONCLUSIONS: Serum cystatin C concentration does not predict mortality or treatment failure in patients receiving PD.
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Cistatina C/sangre , Diálisis Peritoneal , Insuficiencia Renal/sangre , Insuficiencia Renal/terapia , Adolescente , Adulto , Anciano , Anciano de 80 o más Años , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Valor Predictivo de las Pruebas , Estudios Prospectivos , Insuficiencia Renal/mortalidad , Insuficiencia del Tratamiento , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: The prevalence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) is high in general populations around the world. Targeted testing and screening for CKD are often conducted to help identify individuals that may benefit from treatment to ameliorate or prevent their disease progression. AIMS: This systematic review examines the methods used in economic evaluations of testing and screening in CKD, with a particular focus on whether test accuracy has been considered, and how analysis has incorporated issues that may be important to the patient, such as the impact of testing on quality of life and the costs they incur. METHODS: Articles that described model-based economic evaluations of patient testing interventions focused on CKD were identified through the searching of electronic databases and the hand searching of the bibliographies of the included studies. RESULTS: The initial electronic searches identified 2,671 papers of which 21 were included in the final review. Eighteen studies focused on proteinuria, three evaluated glomerular filtration rate testing and one included both tests. The full impact of inaccurate test results was frequently not considered in economic evaluations in this setting as a societal perspective was rarely adopted. The impact of false positive tests on patients in terms of the costs incurred in re-attending for repeat testing, and the anxiety associated with a positive test was almost always overlooked. In one study where the impact of a false positive test on patient quality of life was examined in sensitivity analysis, it had a significant impact on the conclusions drawn from the model. CONCLUSION: Future economic evaluations of kidney function testing should examine testing and monitoring pathways from the perspective of patients, to ensure that issues that are important to patients, such as the possibility of inaccurate test results, are properly considered in the analysis.
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Análisis Costo-Beneficio , Pruebas de Función Renal/economía , Pruebas de Función Renal/métodos , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/diagnóstico , Progresión de la Enfermedad , Femenino , Humanos , Pruebas de Función Renal/normas , Masculino , Reproducibilidad de los ResultadosRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Use of renin-angiotensin system (RAS) blockade has become increasingly widespread driven by evidence-based guidance. There is concern about the role of these agents in the genesis of avoidable acute kidney injury (AKI). OBJECTIVES: To investigate the association between AKI and use of RAS blockade. DESIGN: Multilevel hierarchical analysis of a large cohort of patients registered with UK general practitioners. SETTING: Primary care practices in East and West Kent, United Kingdom. PATIENTS: 244,715 patients from 27 practices. MEASUREMENTS: Demographic, clinical, biochemical and prescription data. METHODS: Analyses of data acquired between 02/3/2004 and 17/04/2012 using multilevel logistic regression to determine the relationship between AKI and use of RAS blockade; further analysed by indication for treatment with RAS blockade. RESULTS: Sufficient serum creatinine data were available to define AKI in 63,735 patients with 208,275 blood test instances. In 95,569 instances the patient was prescribed a RAS antagonist of which 5.4% fulfilled criteria for AKI. The unadjusted odds ratio (OR) for AKI in those prescribed RAS blockade was 1.93 (1.81-2.06, 95%CI) falling to 1.11 (1.02-1.20, 95%CI) when adjusted for age, gender, co-morbidity, GFR category, proteinuria, systolic blood pressure and diuretic therapy. In patients with an evidence-based indication there was no difference in absolute risk of AKI. However, prescription of RAS blockade in the absence of indication appeared to be associated with greater risk of AKI. When analysis was repeated with AKIN2/AKIN3 as the outcome, although risk of AKI remained significant when unadjusted (OR 1.73, 95%CI 1.42-2.11, p<0.001), after full adjustment there was no increased risk (OR 0.83, 95%CI 0.63-1.09) in those taking RAS antagonists. However, when analysed by indication AKIN2/AKIN3 was significantly more likely in those prescribed RAS antagonists without indication (OR 2.04, 95%CI 1.41-2.94, p<0.001). LIMITATIONS: Observational database study. No information concerning hospitalisation. Prescribing assumptions and potential inaccurate coding. Potential survival bias; patients surviving longer will contribute more data. CONCLUSIONS: Use of RAS antagonists increased the risk of AKI, independent of common confounding variables. After correction for confounders the risk fell away and became non-significant for moderate and severe AKI. However, where there was no evidence-based indication for RAS antagonists the risk of AKI, whether mild, moderate or severe, remained greater.
CONTEXTE: Vu l'abondance de données probantes en la matière, le recours aux inhibiteurs du système rénine-angiotensine-aldostérone (SRAA) est de plus en plus répandu. Il existe certaines préoccupations quant au rôle de ces agents dans la genèse de l'insuffisance rénale aiguë (IRA) évitable. OBJECTIF DE L'ÉTUDE: Examiner, au sein d'une cohorte en soins de santé primaires, la présence de liens entre l'IRA et l'utilisation d'inhibiteurs du SRAA. TYPE D'ÉTUDE: Une analyse hiérarchique multiniveaux d'une vaste cohorte de patients suivis par des médecins généralistes du Royaume-Uni. CONTEXTE: Cliniques de soins de santé primaires situées dans l'est et l'ouest du comté du Kent, au Royaume-Uni. PATIENTS: Les données ont été recueillies auprès d'une cohorte de 244 715 patients en soins primaires, provenant de 27 cliniques de soins primaires dans l'est et l'ouest du comté du Kent. MESURES: Données démographiques, cliniques, biochimiques et issues d'ordonnances. MÉTHODES: L'analyse des données recueillies entre le 2004/03/02 et le 2012/04/17 a été effectuée par régression logistique multiniveaux afin de déterminer la relation entre l'IRA et l'utilisation d'inhibiteurs du SRAA, et ensuite par indication de traitement avec des inhibiteurs du SRAA. RÉSULTATS: Une quantité suffisante de données relatives à la créatininémie était disponible pour évaluer l'IRA chez 63 735 patients, qui avaient eu au total 208 275 prélèvements sanguins. Chez 95 569 sujets, un inhibiteur du SRAA a été prescrit, et 5,4% (5 194) de ces derniers ont eu un épisode d'IRA. Chez les patientsrecevant un traitement fondé sur des indications probantes, 5,8% (4473 sur 76 517) ont eu un épisode d'IRA. Le risque relatif non ajusté (RR) d'IRA associé à l'utilisation d'un inhibiteur du SRAA était de 1,93 (1,81-2,06, 95% IC), diminuant à 1,11 (1,02-1,20, 95% IC) lorsqu'ajusté pour l' âge, le sexe, la comorbidité, la catégorie de débit de filtration glomérulaire, la protéinurie, la pression artérielle systolique et le traitement diurétique. Chez les patients recevant un traitement par inhibiteurs du SRAA fondé sur des indications probantes, il n'y avait aucune différence de risque absolu d'IRA. Par contre, il semblait y avoir un lien entre la prescription d'inhibiteurs du SRAA en l'absence d'indications probantes et un risque accru d'IRA. Lorsque l'analyse a été répétée avec l'AKIN2/AKIN3 comme critère de jugement, le risque d'IRA associé à l'utilisation d'un inhibiteur du SRAA restait significatif dans le modèle non ajusté (RR 1,73, 95% IC 1,42-2,11, p < 0,001), mais aucune augmentation de risque n'a été observée après ajustement (RR 0,83, 95% IC 0,63-1,09). Par contre, le risque d'AKIN2/AKIN3 lié à l'utilisation d'un inhibiteur du SRAA était significativement plus élevée chez les patients qui recevaient ces agents sans indications probantes (RR 2,04, 95% IC, 1,41-2,94, p < 0,001). LIMITES DE L'ÉTUDE: Étude par observation de données prises dans des cliniques de soins primaires. Aucune information d'hospitalisation disponible (base de données de soins primaires). Interprétation des prescriptions et possibilité de codes erronés. Biais de temps d'immortalité possible : les patients qui vivent plus longtemps contribuent davantage à l'analyse par les prélèvements sanguins. CONCLUSIONS: Notre analyse montre que l'utilisation d'inhibiteurs du SRAA augmente le risque d'IRA. Le risque est indépendant de diverses variables de confusion, dont l'âge, la mesure de base de la fonction rénale, la présence de comorbidité pertinente et la pression artérielle systolique. Après correction pour les variables confusionnelles, le risque diminuait toujours : il devenait non significatif pour l'IRA modérée et sévère. Par contre, le risque d'IRA légere, modérée ou sévère demeurait élevé lorsque l'utilisation d'inhibiteurs du SRAA ne s'appuyait sur aucune indication probante. Renin angiotensin system blockade is known to be associated with acute kidney injury. This is the first study to examine this association by evidence-based indication. Although renin angiotensin system blockade increases the risk of acute kidney injury overall, in those with an evidence-based indication the majority of the effect is explained by underlying co-morbidity. In people with no evidence-based indication prescription of renin angiotensin blockade is an independent predictor of acute kidney injury.
RESUMEN
Clinical practice guidelines provide guidance in decision making relating to diagnosis, management, and treatment in specific areas of health care. They play an essential role in the evaluation and synthesis of an ever-expanding evidence base and are of increasing importance in aging societies with a high prevalence of overlapping disease comorbid conditions. Integration of chronic disease guidance is essential, particularly in older people, in order to understand critical disease interactions and the potential adverse effects that individual guideline statements may engender in different disease areas. This requires a need for flexibility that not only recognizes the differences in patients' characteristics, but also their preferences for medical interventions and health outcomes. The question is how this can be achieved. In this article, we look at the standardization of clinical practice guidelines from the chronic kidney disease standpoint and consider how tools for integrating guidelines, such as the ADAPTE process and the knowledge-to-action cycle, can be used to guide appropriate decision making and take account of patient choice in older adults with multimorbidity.
Asunto(s)
Conducta de Elección , Prioridad del Paciente , Guías de Práctica Clínica como Asunto/normas , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/diagnóstico , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/terapia , Factores de Edad , Anciano , Comorbilidad , Humanos , Insuficiencia Renal Crónica/epidemiologíaRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: The significant impact Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) has on patient morbidity and mortality emphasizes the need for early recognition and effective treatment. AKI presenting to or occurring during hospitalisation has been widely studied but little is known about the incidence and outcomes of patients experiencing acute elevations in serum creatinine in the primary care setting where people are not subsequently admitted to hospital. The aim of this study was to define this incidence and explore its impact on mortality. METHODS: The study cohort was identified by using hospital data bases over a six month period. INCLUSION CRITERIA: People with a serum creatinine request during the study period, 18 or over and not on renal replacement therapy.The patients were stratified by a rise in serum creatinine corresponding to the Acute Kidney Injury Network (AKIN) criteria for comparison purposes. Descriptive and survival data were then analysed.Ethical approval was granted from National Research Ethics Service (NRES) Committee South East Coast and from the National Information Governance Board. RESULTS: The total study population was 61,432. 57,300 subjects with 'no AKI', mean age 64.The number (mean age) of acute serum creatinine rises overall were, 'AKI 1' 3,798 (72), 'AKI 2' 232 (73), and 'AKI 3' 102 (68) which equates to an overall incidence of 14,192 pmp/year (adult). Unadjusted 30 day survival was 99.9% in subjects with 'no AKI', compared to 98.6%, 90.1% and 82.3% in those with 'AKI 1', 'AKI 2' and 'AKI 3' respectively. After multivariable analysis adjusting for age, gender, baseline kidney function and co-morbidity the odds ratio of 30 day mortality was 5.3 (95% CI 3.6, 7.7), 36.8 (95% CI 21.6, 62.7) and 123 (95% CI 64.8, 235) respectively, compared to those without acute serum creatinine rises as defined. CONCLUSIONS: People who develop acute elevations of serum creatinine in primary care without being admitted to hospital have significantly worse outcomes than those with stable kidney function.