Measurement invariance and differential item functioning of the functionality appreciation scale (FAS) in Colombia and Spain.

The Functionality Appreciation Scale (FAS) is increasingly used in diverse national and linguistic contexts. However, limited work has assessed the extent to which the instrument demonstrates measurement invariance and differential item functioning (DIF) across nations and respondent characteristics. Here, we examined measurement invariance and DIF of the FAS using archival data from adults in Colombia (Mebarak et al., 2023) and Spain (Zamora et al., 2024). Participants included 1420 (women n = 804, men n = 616) respondents from Colombia and 838 (women n = 415, men n = 423) respondents from Spain who completed translations of the FAS. Confirmatory factor analysis supported a unidimensional structure of the FAS in both national groups. Additionally, the FAS achieved full measurement invariance (up to latent mean invariance) across both groups. We also found that the FAS lacked DIF as a function of age, body mass index (BMI), and gender identity across both national groups. Older participants (relative to younger participants), men (relative to women), and participants with lower BMIs (relative to those with higher BMIs) had higher FAS scores. These results support the notion that the FAS is measuring a common underlying construct across these national groups and respondent characteristics.

The impact of body image on social cognition: Fear of negative evaluation mediates the relationship between body surveillance and interpersonal distance in women.

Interpersonal distance (IPD) refers to the distance naturally maintained during social interactions, while peripersonal space (PPS) refers to the immediate space surrounding the body, or the space within reaching distance. Previous research has preliminarily indicated that IPD is associated with body image disturbances. We sought to expand extant literature by exploring associations between aspects of positive and negative body image, IPD, and PPS. Seventy-five women from the United Kingdom aged 18-40 years completed measures of body appreciation, body image flexibility, body shame, body surveillance, and body dissatisfaction. IPD boundaries were estimated using a lab-based comfort-distance task, whereas PPS boundaries were estimated using an audio-tactile reaction-time task. Measures of body acceptance by others and fear of negative evaluation were completed as potential mediators. Overall, we identified positive associations between IPD, body surveillance, and fear of negative evaluation, with no statistically significant associations identified between the other indices. The association between active IPD and body surveillance was mediated by fear of negative evaluation, even after controlling for demographic factors. These findings suggest a nuanced relationship between IPD and body image-related factors, highlighting the role of social evaluation anxiety. Future investigations should use experimental designs to further understand these relationships and their implications.

Translation and psychometric properties of a Polish version of the Body Acceptance by Others Scale-2 (BAOS-2).

The 13-item Body Acceptance by Others Scale-2 (BAOS-2) measures generalised perceptions of body acceptance by others. Here, we examined the psychometric properties of a novel Polish translation of the BAOS-2. A sample of 1183 adults (898 women, 285 men; age M = 28.98) from Poland completed a Polish version of the BAOS-2, alongside measures of body appreciation, pressure to conform to appearance ideals, self-compassion, self-esteem, and impression management. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis identified a stable unidimensional model of the Polish BAOS-2, with all 13 items retained. Additionally, the Polish BAOS-2 evidenced complete invariance (i.e., through to latent mean invariance) across gender identity. Scores on the BAOS-2 evidenced adequate composite reliability and, in a retest subsample (n = 260), showed complete invariance across four weeks. Evidence of convergent, criterion-related, discriminant, and incremental validity was very strong when based on observed BAOS-2 scores, but weaker when based on latent BAOS-2 scores. Whether examined at the observed or latent level, greater body acceptance by others was consistently and strongly associated with higher body appreciation. These results suggest that the psychometric properties of the Polish BAOS-2 are robust and that this instrument can be confidently utilised in future research with Polish adults.

Associations between nature exposure and body image: A critical, narrative review of the evidence.

Researchers, practitioners, and policy-makers are having to deal with the negative impact of body image concerns in populations globally. One cost-effective way of promoting healthier body image outcomes is through exposure to natural environments. A growing body of research has shown that spending time in, interacting with, and even just looking at natural environments can promote healthier body image outcomes. In this narrative review, I consider the different forms of evidence documenting an association between nature exposure and body image (i.e., cross-sectional and mediational, experimental and quasi-experimental, comparative, prospective, experience sampling, and qualitative research). Beyond this, I shine a critical light on the available evidence, highlighting concerns with methodological (i.e., who research has focused on and what types of natural environments have been considered), psychometric (i.e., how body image and nature exposure are measured), and conceptual issues (how the association is explained). I conclude that, although there are issues affecting the way the existing body of research is to be understood, there are reasons to be hopeful that nature exposure can be leveraged to promote healthier body image outcomes in diverse populations.

The Intuitive Eating Scale-3: Development and psychometric evaluation.

Intuitive eating has been found to protect against disordered eating and preserve well-being. Yet, there are methodological (length), conceptual (inconsideration of medical, value-based, and access-related reasons for food consumption), and psychometric (item wording) concerns with its most common measure, the Intuitive Eating Scale-2 (IES-2). To address these concerns, we developed the IES-3 and investigated its psychometric properties with U.S. community adults. Across three online studies, we evaluated the IES-3's factorial validity using exploratory factor analysis (EFA; Study 1; N = 957; Mage = 36.30), as well as confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM), bifactor-CFA, and bifactor-ESEM (Study 2; N = 1152; Mage = 40.95), and cross-validated the optimal model (Study 3; N = 884; Mage = 38.54). We examined measurement invariance across samples and time, differential item functioning (age, body mass index [BMI], gender), composite reliability, and validity. Study 1 revealed a 12-item, 4-factor structure (unconditional permission to eat, eating for physical reasons, reliance on hunger and satiety cues, body-food choice congruence). In Study 2, a bifactor-ESEM model with a global intuitive eating factor and four specific factors best fit the data, which was temporally stable across three weeks. This model also had good fit in Study 3 and, across Studies 2 and 3, and was fully invariant and lacked measurement bias in terms of age, gender, and BMI. Associations between latent IES-3 factors and age, gender, and BMI were invariant across Studies 2 and 3. Composite reliability and validity (relationships with disordered eating, embodiment, body image, well-being, and distress; negligible relationship with impression management) of the retained model were also supported. The 12-item IES-3 demonstrates strong psychometric properties in U.S. community adults. Research is now needed using the IES-3 in other cultural contexts and social identity groups.

The Experience of Embodiment Scale: An examination of its psychometric properties in women from the Republic of Cyprus.

The Experience of Embodiment Scale (EES) is a recently developed instrument that assesses experiences of living in the body. Here, we prepared a novel Greek translation of the EES and examined its psychometric properties. We initially prepared a Greek translation of the EES using a 5-step procedure recommended for test adaptation studies. Next, in a cross-sectional study, we asked a sample of 933 women from Cyprus to complete the Greek EES, alongside additional, previously validated measures assessing body appreciation, psychological well-being (self-esteem, life satisfaction), eating restriction, perfectionism, and internalisation of appearance ideals. Our analyses showed that EES factorial models based on confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) roundly had poor fit. Conversely, models based on exploratory structural equation modelling (ESEM)-which accounts for the fact that EES items cross-load across factors-had adequate fit to the data. Additionally, we found that both higher-order and bifactor-ESEM models that controlled for the uniqueness of negatively worded items had adequate fit. The bifactor-ESEM model had the best fit of all the models tested, and was invariant across ethnicity (Greeks and Greek-Cypriots) and was unaffected by differential item functioning based on age and body mass index. Additionally, construct validity of the final, optimal model was adequate, especially for its G-factor, as indicated by significant associations with additional constructs in expected directions. These results suggest that a bifactor-ESEM model of the Greek EES has adequate psychometric properties. Our work highlights important psychometric issues relating to the manner in which the EES should (or could) be conceptualised and modelled, which should be considered more fully in future work.

Translation and validation of a Romanian version of the Breast Appreciation Scale (BrAS).

The 9-item Breast Appreciation Scale (BrAS; Swami et al., 2022) is a recently developed instrument that assesses a woman's positive breasted experiences. To date, however, the psychometric properties of the BrAS have only been investigated in English-speaking women. Here, we report on the translation and validation of a novel, Romanian version of the BrAS. A total of 555 cisgender women from Romania completed a Romanian translation of the BrAS along with additional measures of body image and psychological well-being. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis identified a stable unidimensional model of the BrAS, with all nine items retained. Additionally, the Romanian BrAS evidenced complete invariance (i.e., through to latent mean invariance) across mothers and non-mothers, though mothers had higher observed scores than non-mothers. Evidence of convergent, concurrent, and incremental validity was very strong when based on observed BrAS scores, but slightly weaker when based on latent BrAS scores. In particular, greater latent breast appreciation was significantly associated with higher body appreciation, lower breast size dissatisfaction, and higher self-esteem. Overall, these results suggest that the psychometric properties of the Romanian BrAS are robust and that the instrument can be effectively deployed in this linguistic context.

Does a nature walk improve state body appreciation in children?

The available evidence suggests that exposure to natural environments promotes more positive body image, but to date this research has not considered impacts on children. To answer this question, we invited two groups of children in Poland - matched in terms of age (range = 6 to 12 years), gender identities, and racialised status - to go for a group walk in either a natural environment (n = 80) or a built environment (n = 81). Before and after the walks, participants were asked to complete an adapted, state version of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 for Children. The results of a mixed analysis of variance indicated that children who went for a walk in the natural environment reported a significant improvement to state body appreciation (d = 0.35), whereas those who went for a walk in the built environment did not (d = 0.04). The results also showed no significant impact of gender identity (girls vs. boys) or age (middle vs. late childhood) on this finding. These results show for the first time that nature exposure may help to improve body image outcomes in children, at least in the immediate term, which may prove beneficial for future interventionist work.

Psychometric evaluation of a revised version of the body appreciation scale-2 for autistic adults (BAS-2A).

Emerging evidence points to unique conceptualisations of positive body image in autistic individuals. However, there are no existing measures of positive body image that have been developed or validated for use with autistic adults. To rectify this, we developed a revised version of the BAS-2 - the BAS-2A - and examined its factorial validity and psychometric properties in a sample of autistic adults from the United Kingdom. Based on the results of exploratory factor analysis and scale purification, we extracted a 12-item, unidimensional model of BAS-2A scores in a first split-subsample (n = 273). Confirmatory factor analysis supported the unidimensional model of BAS-2A scores in a second split-subsample (n = 277). BAS-2A scores presented adequate composite reliability, measurement invariance across gender identity, and patterns of construct validity. For both women and men, BAS-2A scores correlated positively with self-esteem, well-being, quality of life, and adaptive coping, and inversely with dietary restraint, weight/shape overvaluation, body dissatisfaction, and depression. Finally, BAS-2A scores demonstrated incremental validity, predicting self-esteem over-and-above body dissatisfaction. However, temporal stability of the BAS-2A over three weeks was not supported. These results support the BAS-2A as a psychometrically robust measure of body appreciation for use in autistic adults from the United Kingdom.

Breastfeeding self-efficacy, body image, body acceptance, and partner support: Associations in Israeli postpartum women.

PROBLEM: Research suggests that breastfeeding self-efficacy (i.e., a mother's perceived ability and confidence to breastfeed her new-born) is associated with body image experiences and wider psychosocial factors. However, much of this work is focused on negative body image and has relied on samples from predominantly Westernised, industrialised nations. BACKGROUND: To extend knowledge, we sought to examine the extent to which indices of positive body image (body appreciation), negative body image (body dissatisfaction, breast size dissatisfaction), and psychosocial factors (body acceptance by others, postpartum partner support) are associated with breastfeeding self-efficacy in sample of mothers from Israel. HYPOTHESIS: We hypothesised that body appreciation, body dissatisfaction, breast size dissatisfaction, body acceptance by others, and postpartum partner support would each be significantly associated with breastfeeding self-efficacy in Israeli mothers. METHOD: A total of 352 mothers from Israel, with an infant aged six months or younger, were asked to complete an online survey that measured the aforementioned constructs. FINDINGS: Correlational and linear model analyses indicated that only body appreciation was significantly associated with breastfeeding self-efficacy. Body acceptance by others was significantly associated with breastfeeding self-efficacy in correlational but not regression analyses. These effects were consistent across primiparous and multiparous mothers. DISCUSSION: In Israeli mothers, at least, a limited set of body image and body image-related indices appear to be associated with breastfeeding self-efficacy. CONCLUSION: Overall, these findings suggest that positive body image may be associated with breastfeeding self-efficacy in women from Israel, though more research is needed.

Associations Between Negative Body Image and Sexual Health Practices in Emerging Adults from Malaysia.

Past findings on the association between negative body image and sexual health behaviors have been mixed and mostly derived from Western samples. The aim of the current study was to examine associations between indices of negative body image and sexual health practices that reduce the risk of disease transmission in emerging adults, and whether these associations are moderated by gender. Using an online survey, a convenience sample of 584 Malaysian adults aged 18-30 years (230 men, 354 women) completed measures of satisfaction with overall appearance, body size dissatisfaction, weight satisfaction, height satisfaction, and genital image evaluation. They also reported if they ever had partnered sex, condomless sex, and been screened for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), as well as their lifetime number of penetrative sex partners. Hierarchical logistic and ordinal regression analyses indicated that more positive genital image evaluation, but not the other body image indices, was significantly associated with having had partnered sex and fewer lifetime penetrative sex partners. None of the body image indices were significantly associated with condomless sex. All associations were consistent across men and women. For HIV testing, a significant interaction between genital image evaluation and gender emerged. However, this was reduced to non-significance after controlling for the number of penetrative sex partners. Overall, our findings underline the importance of promoting improved genital image in interventions aimed at increasing positive sexual health behaviors.

Positive self-beliefs mediate the association between body appreciation and positive mental health.

Previous work has supported direct, positive associations between body appreciation and positive mental health, but has largely neglected to examine possible indirect mechanistic pathways. Here, we propose one relevant mediational pathway, wherein body appreciation is associated with positive mental health via positive self-beliefs (i.e., cognitions that lead individuals to view themselves, their lives, and/or their futures under a positive outlook). To test this hypothesis, we asked an online sample of 496 adults (249 women, 247 men) from the United Kingdom to complete measures of body appreciation, positive self-beliefs, and positive mental health. Participants also completed measures of self-efficacy and resilience, and provided their demographic information. Correlational analysis revealed significant, positive, and strong associations between body appreciation and facets of positive self-beliefs and positive mental health, respectively. Structural equation modelling showed that positive self-beliefs mediated the association between body appreciation and positive mental health after controlling for self-efficacy and resilience. This model was robust across women and men separately, and the mediational effects remained intact in sensitivity and robustness analyses. We discuss ways in which greater body appreciation may help individuals develop and maintain positive self-beliefs, which in turn shape mental health outcomes.

Appearance-based rejection sensitivity mediates the relationship between Instagram addiction and dysmorphic concerns in young adult women.

INTRODUCTION: Dysmorphic concerns refer to excessive preoccupations with one's physical characteristics. There is a need to better understand the factors associated with these experiences, especially in young adult women. Given emergent research suggesting a link between the use of Instagram, dysmorphic concerns, and appearance pressures, we tested a mediation model in which appearance-based rejection sensitivity mediated the relationship between Instagram addiction and dysmorphic concerns. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, 300 young adult women from Romania with mean age of 22.19 years (SD = 2.07) and who possessed an Instagram account were asked to complete an online survey consisting of measures of dysmorphic concerns, Instagram addiction, and appearance-based rejection sensitivity. RESULTS: Correlational analyses revealed that all three variables were positively and moderately inter-correlated. Mediation analysis supported the hypothesis that appearance-based rejection sensitivity mediates the relationship between Instagram addiction and dysmorphic concerns. CONCLUSIONS: Implications of this study are discussed in terms of the urgency of prevention and intervention strategies, especially given the link between dysmorphic concerns and more extreme manifestations of severity, such as body dysmorphic disorder.

"There's No Separating My View of My Body from My Autism": A qualitative study of positive body image in autistic individuals.

While scholars have investigated positive body image across diverse populations, extant theory largely excludes those with differing socio-cognitive experiences, such as autistic individuals. Using constructivist grounded theory, this study sought to develop a grounded theory of positive body image in autistic individuals. One-to-one interviews with photo-elicitation were conducted with 20 autistic adults (7 women, 8 men, 5 non-binary/agender; aged 18-53 years) from the United Kingdom. Through a process of open, axial, and focused coding, a grounded theory was developed around a core category of positive body image in autistic adults and was found to comprise six themes: body connection, body acceptance, appreciating body functionality and neurodivergent strengths, having a body-positive protective filter, taking care of the body, and body and appearance neutrality. Our findings suggest that some aspects of positive body image in autistic individuals are consistent with those found in neurotypical adults. However, positive body image in autistic individuals further encompasses both the sensory (i.e., how the body is felt) and aesthetic (i.e., how the body is seen) body. These findings may stimulate research aimed at improving positive body image in autistic populations.

The Sociostructural-Intersectional Body Image (SIBI) framework: Understanding the impact of white supremacy in body image research and practice.

White supremacy and racial inequities have long pervaded psychological research, including body image scholarship and practice. The experiences of white, heterosexual, able-bodied, cisgender (predominantly college) women from wealthy, Westernized nations have been centered throughout body image research and practice, thereby perpetuating myths of invulnerability among racialized groups and casting white ideals and experiences as the standard by which marginalized bodies are compared. Body image is shaped by multiple axes of oppression that exist within systemic and structural systems, ultimately privileging certain bodies above others. In this position paper, we highlight how white supremacy has shaped body image research and practice. In doing so, we first review the history of body image research and explain how participant sampling, measurement, interpretive frameworks, and dissemination of research have upheld and reinforced white supremacy. Next, grounded in inclusivity and intersectionality, we advance the Sociostructural-Intersectional Body Image (SIBI) framework to more fully understand the body image experiences of those with racialized and minoritized bodies, while challenging and seeking to upend white supremacy in body image research and practice. We encourage other scholars to utilize the SIBI framework to better understand body inequities and the body image experiences of all people, in all bodies.

Greek adaptation of the Teruel Orthorexia Scale (TOS) in adults from the Republic of Cyprus: A bidimensional model may not be universal.

The Teruel Orthorexia Scale (TOS) is a 17-item instrument designed to assess distinct facets of Orthorexia Nervosa (ON) and Healthy Orthorexia (HO). While a bidimensional model of TOS scores has been supported in diverse national and linguistic groups, the psychometric properties of the TOS have not been previously assessed in Greek-speaking populations. To rectify this, we assessed the psychometric properties of a novel Greek translation of the TOS in a sample of adults from Cyprus. A total of 1248 respondents (710 women, 538 men) completed the Greek TOS, as well as previously validated measures of perfectionism, obsessive-compulsive symptomatology, eating restriction, negative affect, and appearance evaluation. Our results showed that a bidimensional model of the TOS had less-than-adequate fit when modelled using both confirmatory factor analysis and exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM). Conversely, both exploratory factor analysis and ESEM supported extraction of a 3-factor model consisting of a HO facet and separate components of emotional orthorexia and cognitive-social orthorexia. This 3-factor model showed a lack of measurement bias (measurement invariance across gender identity and lack of differential item functioning as function of age and body mass index), but there were differences in latent factor means as function of respondent age and body mass index. The 3-factor model showed adequate evidence of construct validity, with the latent emotional orthorexia and cognitive-social orthorexia facets showing significant and moderate associations with the additional constructs measured in the survey. Broadly speaking, these findings support the psychometric properties of a 3-factor model of the Greek TOS, but also suggest that the bidimensional model of the TOS may not have universal applicability. We encourage further assessments of factorial validity in other national and linguistic contexts.

"What Can I Do to Not Have This Life"? A Qualitative Study of Paternal Postnatal Depression Experiences among Fathers in the United Kingdom.

Understandings of paternal postnatal depression (PND) in fathers from the United Kingdom (UK) have received limited attention, particularly in view of changing dynamics of contemporary parenthood. To rectify this, eight UK fathers with PND took part in one-to-one interviews, with Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis used to understand their lived experiences. Our findings demonstrate that UK fathers with PND experienced extremely distressing emotions, including anger and misery, after their babies are born. Their working practices were highly relevant to their fatherhood, with working considered a key responsibility and a source of stress, but also a "legitimate" escape from the home. Fathers' relationships with their partners were experienced as less intimate and conflicted. Fathers often hid their feelings to protect their partners, but also reported their partners as being aware of their challenging and difficult emotions. Healthcare providers should be professionally curious about fathers' mental health and consider the assistance of mothers in identifying cases of paternal PND.

Psychometric properties of a Spanish translation of the Functionality Appreciation Scale (FAS) in adults from Colombia.

The 7-item Functionality Appreciation Scale (FAS) measures the extent of an individual's appreciation of their body for what it can do and is capable of doing. Although the FAS has been widely used in diverse linguistic contexts, it has not been previously translated into Spanish. Here, we examined the psychometric properties of a novel Spanish translation of the FAS in Colombian adults. A total of 1420 university students from Colombia (804 women, 616 men) completed the FAS, as well as additional validated measures. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses in separate subsamples supported a unidimensional model of FAS scores. The FAS evidenced scalar invariance across gender identity, with men having significantly higher FAS scores than women (Cohen's d = 0.18). FAS scores were also found to have adequate composite reliability, as well as adequate convergent (significant associations with body appreciation, appearance evaluation, and eating disorder psychopathology) and concurrent validity (significant associations with self-esteem, life satisfaction, and gratitude). Functionality appreciation incrementally predicted life satisfaction in women, but not in men. Overall, these results suggest that the Spanish FAS is a psychometrically valid and reliable tool for the assessment of functionality appreciation in university-aged populations from Colombia.

Body appreciation around the world: Measurement invariance of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) across 65 nations, 40 languages, gender identities, and age.

The Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) is a widely used measure of a core facet of the positive body image construct. However, extant research concerning measurement invariance of the BAS-2 across a large number of nations remains limited. Here, we utilised the Body Image in Nature (BINS) dataset - with data collected between 2020 and 2022 - to assess measurement invariance of the BAS-2 across 65 nations, 40 languages, gender identities, and age groups. Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis indicated that full scalar invariance was upheld across all nations, languages, gender identities, and age groups, suggesting that the unidimensional BAS-2 model has widespread applicability. There were large differences across nations and languages in latent body appreciation, while differences across gender identities and age groups were negligible-to-small. Additionally, greater body appreciation was significantly associated with higher life satisfaction, being single (versus being married or in a committed relationship), and greater rurality (versus urbanicity). Across a subset of nations where nation-level data were available, greater body appreciation was also significantly associated with greater cultural distance from the United States and greater relative income inequality. These findings suggest that the BAS-2 likely captures a near-universal conceptualisation of the body appreciation construct, which should facilitate further cross-cultural research.

A feeling difficult to identify: Alexithymia is inversely associated with positive body image in adults from the United Kingdom.

BACKGROUND: Research has increasingly examined the ways in which internal bodily experiences influence body image, including the relationship between alexithymia - the reduced ability to identify and describe one's own emotional feelings and bodily sensations - and negative body image. However, relationships between facets of alexithymia and positive body image remain unexplored. METHODS: To bridge this gap in the literature, we assessed relationships between facets of alexithymia and multiple, core indices of positive body image in an online sample of adults from the United Kingdom. A total of 395 participants (226 women, 169 men) aged 18 to 84 years completed measures of alexithymia, body appreciation, functionality appreciation, body image flexibility, body acceptance by others, and positive rational acceptance. RESULTS: Once the effects of age had been accounted for, alexithymia was significantly and negatively associated with all five body image constructs in hierarchical multiple regressions. In the final models, the alexithymia facet of Difficulties Identifying Feeling emerged as a significant and negative predictor of all indices of positive body image. LIMITATIONS: The use of cross-sectional data limits the causal conclusions that can be drawn. CONCLUSIONS: These findings extend previous work by demonstrating the unique relationship between alexithymia and positive body image, providing important implications for body image research and practice.