MicroRNA-135b mainly functions as an oncogene during tumor progression.

Late diagnosis is considered one of the main reasons of high mortality rate among cancer patients that results in therapeutic failure and tumor relapse. Therefore, it is needed to evaluate the molecular mechanisms associated with tumor progression to introduce efficient markers for the early tumor detection among cancer patients. The remarkable stability of microRNAs (miRNAs) in body fluids makes them potential candidates to use as the non-invasive tumor biomarkers in cancer screening programs. MiR-135b has key roles in prognosis and survival of cancer patients by either stimulating or inhibiting cell proliferation, invasion, and angiogenesis. Therefore, in the present review we assessed the molecular biology of miR-135b during tumor progression to introduce that as a novel tumor marker in cancer patients. It has been reported that miR-135b mainly acts as an oncogene by regulation of transcription factors, signaling pathways, drug response, cellular metabolism, and autophagy. This review paves the way to suggest miR-135b as a tumor marker and therapeutic target in cancer patients following the further clinical trials and animal studies.

MicroRNA-532 as a probable diagnostic and therapeutic marker in cancer patients.

The high mortality rate in cancer patients is always one of the main challenges of the health systems globally. Several factors are involved in the high rate of cancer related mortality, including late diagnosis and drug resistance. Cancer is mainly diagnosed in the advanced stages of tumor progression that causes the failure of therapeutic strategies and increases the death rate in these patients. Therefore, assessment of the molecular mechanisms associated with the occurrence of cancer can be effective to introduce early tumor diagnostic markers. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) as the stable non-coding RNAs in the biological body fluids are involved in regulation of cell proliferation, migration, and apoptosis. MiR-532 deregulation has been reported in different tumor types. Therefore, in the present review we discussed the role of miR-532 during tumor growth. It has been shown that miR-532 has mainly a tumor suppressor role through the regulation of transcription factors, chemokines, and signaling pathways such as NF-kB, MAPK, PI3K/AKT, and WNT. In addition to the independent role of miR-532 in regulation of cellular processes, it also functions as a mediator of lncRNAs and circRNAs. Therefore, miR-532 can be considered as a non-invasive diagnostic/prognostic marker as well as a therapeutic target in cancer patients.

MicroRNAs as the critical regulators of epithelial mesenchymal transition in pancreatic tumor cells.

Pancreatic cancer (PC), as one of the main endocrine and digestive systems malignancies has the highest cancer related mortality in the world. Lack of the evident clinical symptoms and appropriate diagnostic markers in the early stages of tumor progression are the main reasons of the high mortality rate among PC patients. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the molecular pathways involved in the PC progression, in order to introduce novel early diagnostic methods. Epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a critical cellular process associated with pancreatic tumor cells invasion and distant metastasis. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are also important regulators of EMT process. In the present review, we discussed the role of miRNAs in regulation of EMT process during PC progression. It has been reported that the miRNAs mainly regulate the EMT process in pancreatic tumor cells through the regulation of EMT-specific transcription factors and several signaling pathways such as WNT, NOTCH, TGF-ß, JAK/STAT, and PI3K/AKT. Considering the high stability of miRNAs in body fluids and their role in regulation of EMT process, they can be introduced as the non-invasive diagnostic markers in the early stages of malignant pancreatic tumors. This review paves the way to introduce a non-invasive EMT based panel marker for the early tumor detection among PC patients.

MicroRNA-409: Molecular functions and clinical applications in cancer.

Late diagnosis is one of the main reasons for high mortality rates in cancer patients. Therefore, investigating the molecular mechanisms involved in tumor progression can improve the cancer diagnosis in the early stages of the tumor progression. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have important roles in regulation of cell growth, proliferation, metabolism, and migration. Since, deregulation of miR-409 has been reported in a wide range of cancers, in the present review, we investigated the molecular mechanisms of miR-409 during tumor progression and invasion. It has been shown that miR-409 functions as a tumor suppressor in different tumor types. MiR-409 can reduce tumor cell proliferation, growth, and migration by regulation of signaling pathways, cellular metabolism, transcription factors, and cellular adhesion. This review can be an effective step in introducing miR-409 as a non-invasive marker in cancer patients.

Role of microRNA-494 in tumor progression.

Various progresses in tumor therapy during the recent decades have significantly reduced the cancer related deaths globally. However, there is still a high rate of mortality in these patients. The early stage tumors have no aggressive and clear clinical symptoms in the majority of cancer types, which causes a high rate of therapeutic failure in advanced tumor stages. Therefore, identification of the molecular tumor biology can be promising to introduce the early diagnostic markers. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are the key regulators of cellular processes that can also be involved in tumor progression as tumor-suppressor or oncogene. Due to the high stability of miRNAs in body fluids, they can be used as the non-invasive diagnostic tumor markers. In the present review, we discussed the role of miR-494 in tumor progression. It has been shown that miR-494 has mainly a tumor suppressor function by regulation of transcriptional and structural factors and signaling pathways such as transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß), WNT, and Janus kinase (JAK)-signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT). The phosphatase and tensin homolog/phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PTEN/PI3K) axis has been also reported as the main target of miR-494 as an oncogene. These findings suggest that miR-494 is a non-invasive diagnostic marker for the early diagnosis and therapeutic management of cancer patients.

PRC2 mediated KLF2 down regulation: a therapeutic and diagnostic axis during tumor progression.

Surgery and chemo-radiotherapy are used as the common first-line treatment options in many cancers. However, tumor relapse is observed in many cancer patients following such first-line treatments. Therefore, targeted therapy according to the molecular cancer biology can be very important in reducing tumor recurrence. In this regard, a wide range of monoclonal antibodies against the growth factors and their receptors can offer more targeted treatment in cancer patients. However, due to the importance of growth factors in the normal biology of body cells, side effects can also be observed following the application of growth factor inhibitors. Therefore, more specific factors should be introduced as therapeutic targets with less side effects. Krüppel-like factors 2 (KLF2) belongs to the KLF family of transcription factors that are involved in the regulation of many cellular processes. KLF2 deregulations have been also reported during the progression of many tumors. In the present review we discussed the molecular mechanisms of KLF2 during tumor growth and invasion. It has been shown that the KLF2 as a tumor suppressor is mainly inhibited by the non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) through the polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) recruitment. This review is an effective step towards introducing the KLF2 as a suitable diagnostic and therapeutic target in cancer patients.

MicroRNA-495: a therapeutic and diagnostic tumor marker.

Therapeutic and diagnostic progresses have significantly reduced the mortality rate among cancer patients during the last decade. However, there is still a high rate of mortality among cancer patients. One of the important reasons involved in the high mortality rate is the late diagnosis in advanced tumor stages that causes the failure of therapeutic strategies in these patients. Therefore, investigating the molecular mechanisms involved in tumor progression has an important role in introducing the efficient early detection markers. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) as stable factors in body fluids are always considered as non-invasive diagnostic and prognostic markers. In the present review, we investigated the role of miR-495 in tumor progression. It has been reported that miR-495 has mainly a tumor suppressor function through the regulation of transcription factors and tyrosine kinases as well as cellular processes such as multidrug resistance, chromatin remodeling, and signaling pathways. This review can be an effective step towards introducing the miR-495 as a non-invasive diagnostic/prognostic marker as well as a suitable target in tumor therapy.

MicroRNAs as the critical regulators of Forkhead box protein family during gynecological and breast tumor progression and metastasis.

Gynecological and breast tumors are one of the main causes of cancer-related mortalities among women. Despite recent advances in diagnostic and therapeutic methods, tumor relapse is observed in a high percentage of these patients due to the treatment failure. Late diagnosis in advanced tumor stages is one of the main reasons for the treatment failure and recurrence in these tumors. Therefore, it is necessary to assess the molecular mechanisms involved in progression of these tumors to introduce the efficient early diagnostic markers. Fokhead Box (FOX) is a family of transcription factors with a key role in regulation of a wide variety of cellular mechanisms. Deregulation of FOX proteins has been observed in different cancers. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) as a group of non-coding RNAs have important roles in post-transcriptional regulation of the genes involved in cellular mechanisms. They are also the non-invasive diagnostic markers due to their high stability in body fluids. Considering the importance of FOX proteins in the progression of breast and gynecological tumors, we investigated the role of miRNAs in regulation of the FOX proteins in these tumors. MicroRNAs were mainly involved in progression of these tumors through FOXM, FOXP, and FOXO. The present review paves the way to suggest a non-invasive diagnostic panel marker based on the miRNAs/FOX axis in breast and gynecological cancers.

Role of forkhead box proteins in regulation of doxorubicin and paclitaxel responses in tumor cells: A comprehensive review.

Chemotherapy is one of the common first-line therapeutic methods in cancer patients. Despite the significant effects in improving the quality of life and survival of patients, chemo resistance is observed in a significant part of cancer patients, which leads to tumor recurrence and metastasis. Doxorubicin (DOX) and paclitaxel (PTX) are used as the first-line drugs in a wide range of tumors; however, DOX/PTX resistance limits their use in cancer patients. Considering the DOX/PTX side effects in normal tissues, identification of DOX/PTX resistant cancer patients is required to choose the most efficient therapeutic strategy for these patients. Investigating the molecular mechanisms involved in DOX/PTX response can help to improve the prognosis in cancer patients. Several cellular processes such as drug efflux, autophagy, and DNA repair are associated with chemo resistance that can be regulated by transcription factors as the main effectors in signaling pathways. Forkhead box (FOX) family of transcription factor has a key role in regulating cellular processes such as cell differentiation, migration, apoptosis, and proliferation. FOX deregulations have been associated with resistance to chemotherapy in different cancers. Therefore, we discussed the role of FOX protein family in DOX/PTX response. It has been reported that FOX proteins are mainly involved in DOX/PTX response by regulation of drug efflux, autophagy, structural proteins, and signaling pathways such as PI3K/AKT, NF-kb, and JNK. This review is an effective step in introducing the FOX protein family as the reliable prognostic markers and therapeutic targets in cancer patients.

Molecular biology of microRNA-342 during tumor progression and invasion.

Cancer is considered as one of the main causes of human deaths and health challenges in the world. Various factors are involved in the high death rate of cancer patients, including late diagnosis and drug resistance that result in treatment failure and tumor recurrence. Invasive diagnostic methods are one of the main reasons of late tumor detection in cancer patients. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the molecular tumor biology to introduce efficient non-invasive markers. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are involved in regulation of the cellular mechanisms such as cell proliferation, apoptosis, and migration. MiRNAs deregulations have been also frequently shown in different tumor types. Here, we discussed the molecular mechanisms of miR-342 during tumor growth. MiR-342 mainly functions as a tumor suppressor by the regulation of transcription factors and signaling pathways such as WNT, PI3K/AKT, NF-kB, and MAPK. Therefore, miR-342 mimics can be used as a reliable therapeutic strategy to inhibit the tumor cells growth. The present review can also pave the way to introduce the miR-342 as a non-invasive diagnostic/prognostic marker in cancer patients.

MicroRNA-506 as a tumor suppressor in anaplastic thyroid carcinoma by regulation of WNT and NOTCH signaling pathways.

Objectives: Anaplastic thyroid carcinoma (ATC) is an aggressive thyroid tumor type that has a poor prognosis due to its high therapeutic resistance. Since ATC accounts for half of thyroid cancer-related deaths, it is required to introduce novel therapeutic targets to increase survival in ATC patients. WNT and NOTCH signaling pathways are the pivotal regulators of cell proliferation and migration that can be regulated by microRNAs. We assessed the role of miR-506 in the regulation of cell migration, apoptosis, and drug resistance via NOTCH and WNT pathways in ATC cells. Materials and Methods: The levels of miR-506 expressions were assessed in ATC cells and tissues. The levels of NOTCH, WNT, and EMT-related gene expressions were also assessed in miR-506 ectopic expressed cells compared with controls. Cell migration and drug resistance were also evaluated to assess the role of miR-506 in the regulation of ATC aggressiveness. Results: There were significant miR-506 down-regulations in ATC cells and clinical samples compared with normal cells and margins. MiR-506 suppressed NOTCH and WNT signaling pathways through LEF1, DVL, FZD1, HEY2, HES5, and HEY2 down-regulations, and APC and GSK3b up-regulations. MiR-506 significantly inhibited ATC cell migration and EMT (P=0.028). Moreover, miR-506 significantly increased Cisplatin (P=0.004), Paclitaxel (P<0.0001), and Doxorubicin (P=0.0014) sensitivities in ATC cells. Conclusion: MiR-506 regulated EMT, cell migration, and chemoresistance through regulation of WNT and NOTCH signaling pathways in ATC cells. Therefore, after confirmation with animal studies, it can be introduced as an efficient novel therapeutic factor for ATC tumors.

MicroRNAs as the Critical Regulators of Forkhead Box Protein Family in Pancreatic, Thyroid, and Liver Cancers.

The metabolism of human body is mainly regulated by the pancreas, liver, and thyroid using the hormones or exocrine secretions that affect the metabolic processes from food digestion to intracellular metabolism. Therefore, metabolic organ disorders have wide clinical symptoms that severely affect the quality of patient's life. The pancreatic, liver, and thyroid cancers as the main malignancies of the metabolic system have always been considered as one of the serious health challenges worldwide. Despite the novel therapeutic modalities, there are still significant high mortality and recurrence rates, especially in liver and pancreatic cancer patients which are mainly related to the late diagnosis. Therefore, it is required to assess the molecular bases of tumor progressions to introduce novel early detection and therapeutic markers in these malignancies. Forkhead box (FOX) protein family is a group of transcription factors that have pivotal roles in regulation of cell proliferation, migration, and apoptosis. They function as oncogene or tumor suppressor during tumor progression. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are also involved in regulation of cellular processes. Therefore, in the present review, we discussed the role of miRNAs during pancreatic, thyroid, and liver tumor progressions through FOX regulation. It has been shown that miRNAs were mainly involved in tumor progression via FOXM and FOXO targeting. This review paves the way for the introduction of miR/FOX axis as an efficient early detection marker and therapeutic target in pancreatic, thyroid, and liver tumors.

Molecular mechanisms of microRNA-216a during tumor progression.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) as the members of non-coding RNAs family are involved in post-transcriptional regulation by translational inhibiting or mRNA degradation. They have a critical role in regulation of cell proliferation and migration. MiRNAs aberrations have been reported in various cancers. Considering the importance of these factors in regulation of cellular processes and their high stability in body fluids, these factors can be suggested as suitable non-invasive markers for the cancer diagnosis. MiR-216a deregulation has been frequently reported in different cancers. Therefore, in the present review we discussed the molecular mechanisms of the miR-216a during tumor progression. It has been reported that miR-216a mainly functioned as a tumor suppressor through the regulation of signaling pathways and transcription factors. This review paves the way to suggest the miR-216a as a probable therapeutic and diagnostic target in cancer patients.

Cell cycle related long non-coding RNAs as the critical regulators of breast cancer progression and metastasis.

Cell cycle is one of the main cellular mechanisms involved in tumor progression. Almost all of the active molecular pathways in tumor cells directly or indirectly target the cell cycle progression. Therefore, it is necessary to assess the molecular mechanisms involved in cell cycle regulation in tumor cells. Since, early diagnosis has pivotal role in better cancer management and treatment, it is required to introduce the non-invasive diagnostic markers. Long non-coding RNAs (LncRNAs) have higher stability in body fluids in comparison with mRNAs. Therefore, they can be used as efficient non-invasive markers for the early detection of breast cancer (BCa). In the present review we have summarized all of the reported lncRNAs involved in cell cycle regulation in BCa. It has been reported that lncRNAs mainly affect the cell cycle in G1/S transition through the CCND1/CDK4-6 complex. Present review paves the way of introducing the cell cycle related lncRNAs as efficient markers for the early detection of BCa.

MicroRNA-377: A therapeutic and diagnostic tumor marker.

Cancer is considered as one of the main causes of human deaths globally. Despite the recent progresses in therapeutic modalities, there is still a high rate of mortality among cancer patients. Late diagnosis in advanced tumor stages is one of the main reasons for treatment failure in cancer patients. Therefore, it is required to suggest the novel strategies for the early tumor detection. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have critical roles in neoplastic transformation by regulation of cell proliferation, migration, and apoptosis. They are always considered as non-invasive markers due to their high stability in body fluids. Since, all of the miRNAs have tissue-specific functions in different tumors as tumor suppressor or oncogene; it is required to investigate the molecular mechanisms of every miRNA in different tumors to introduce that as a suitable non-invasive diagnostic marker in cancer patients. For the first time in the present review, we discussed the role of miR-377 during tumor progression. It has been reported that miR-377 mainly functions as a tumor suppressor through the regulation of signaling pathways and transcription factors. This review is an important step toward introducing the miR-377 as a novel diagnostic marker as well as a therapeutic target in cancer patients.

Cell cycle related long non-coding RNAs as the critical regulators of breast cancer progression and metastasis

Cell cycle is one of the main cellular mechanisms involved in tumor progression. Almost all of the active molecular pathways in tumor cells directly or indirectly target the cell cycle progression. Therefore, it is necessary to assess the molecular mechanisms involved in cell cycle regulation in tumor cells. Since, early diagnosis has pivotal role in better cancer management and treatment, it is required to introduce the non-invasive diagnostic markers. Long non-coding RNAs (LncRNAs) have higher stability in body fluids in comparison with mRNAs. Therefore, they can be used as efficient non-invasive markers for the early detection of breast cancer (BCa). In the present review we have summarized all of the reported lncRNAs involved in cell cycle regulation in BCa. It has been reported that lncRNAs mainly affect the cell cycle in G1/S transition through the CCND1/CDK4-6 complex. Present review paves the way of introducing the cell cycle related lncRNAs as efficient markers for the early detection of BCa.

The expression of long non-coding RNA LINC01389, LINC00365, RP11-138J23.1, and RP11-354K4.2 in gastric cancer and their impacts on EMT.

BACKGROUND: Epithelial cancers acquire the epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), which leads tumor cells to invade and metastasize to adjacent and distant tissues. The mechanisms involved in EMT phenotype are controlled by numerous markers as well as signalling pathways. Recently, long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) were introduced that play the regulatory role in EMT via crosstalk with EMT-related transcription factors and signalling pathways. The present study aimed to investigate the expression of four lncRNAs in human GC and elucidate their probable role in EMT procedure and the pathogenesis of gastric cancer (GC). METHODS: The expression profile of lncRNAs (LINC01389, LINC00365, RP11-138J23.1, and RP11-354K4.2) and mRNAs (TWIST1, MMP13, MAML1, CD44s, and SALL4) between eighty-three GC and adjacent non-cancerous tissues were assessed by quantitative real-time PCR. RESULTS: The significant downregulation of LINC00365 (66.3%) and RP11-354K4.2 (62.7%) were observed in GC samples; while the upregulation of LINC01389, RP11-138J23.1, TWIST1, MMP13, MAML1, CD44s, and SALL4 were found in 67.5%, 45.8%, 56.6%, 44.6%, 59%, 55.4%, and 62.7% tumors samples at the mRNA level, respectively. Dysregulation of these lncRNAs and EMT-related markers was significantly related to each other in a variety of clinicopathological features of patients (P < 0.05), indicating positive correlations between LINC01389, LINC00365, RP11-138J23.1, and RP11-354K4.2 with EMT status in GC. CONCLUSION: These EMT-regulating lncRNAs may play a key role in transforming gastric epithelial to mesenchymal phenotype and can be novel therapeutic targets for GC. Our results highlight the importance of discovering new lncRNAs involved in gastric carcinogenesis. Detailed molecular mechanisms of these noncoding-coding markers in GC are urgently required.

Inhibitory role of LINC00332 in gastric cancer progression through regulating cell EMT and stemness.

OBJECTIVE: Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common lethal malignancies worldwide. The molecular mechanisms underlying GC early detection are poorly understood. Identifying potential coding and non-coding markers and related pathways in the GC progression is essential. Some Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) reportedly play vital roles during gastric GC development. However, the clinical significance and biological function of LINC00332 in GC remain largely unclear. METHODS: The gene expression patterns of GC from an RNAseq dataset (GSE122401) were retrieved from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database to recognize differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and lncRNAs (DELs) between normal and GC samples through several bioinformatic analysis. The expression of LINC00332 and MMP-13 as a target gene was quantified in fresh frozen tissues obtained from GC patients. In addition, we investigated the potential function of LINC00332 in silico and in vitro. RESULTS: The expressions of LINC00332 and MMP-13 were significantly downregulated and upregulated in GC tissues, respectively. A significant inverse correlation between LINC00332 and MMP-13 mRNA expression was observed in tumor samples. The mRNA expression level of mesenchymal markers, stem cell factors, and MMP genes were significantly decreased after the LINC00332 ectopic expression, while epithelial markers expression was significantly increased. The LINC00332 overexpression markedly repressed proliferation, migration, and invasion and did not induce apoptosis in AGS cells. In addition, LINC00332 overexpression notably promoted the E-cadherin protein expression. Moreover, LINC00332 significantly decreased the cisplatin resistance. CONCLUSION: Our findings indicated that LINC00332 may be a critical anti-EMT factor and provided a new efficient therapeutic strategy for GC treatment.

MicroRNAs as the critical regulators of cell migration and invasion in thyroid cancer.

Thyroid cancer (TC) is one of the most frequent endocrine malignancies that is more common among females. Tumor recurrence is one of the most important clinical manifestations in differentiated TC which is associated with different factors including age, tumor size, and histological features. Various molecular processes such as genetic or epigenetic modifications and non-coding RNAs are also involved in TC progression and metastasis. The epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is an important biological process during tumor invasion and migration that affects the initiation and transformation of early-stage tumors into invasive malignancies. A combination of transcription factors, growth factors, signaling pathways, and epigenetic regulations affect the thyroid cell migration and EMT process. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important molecular factors involved in tumor metastasis by regulation of EMT-activating signaling pathways. Various miRNAs are involved in the signaling pathways associated with TC metastasis which can be used as diagnostic and therapeutic biomarkers. Since, the miRNAs are sensitive, specific, and non-invasive, they can be suggested as efficient and optimal biomarkers of tumor invasion and metastasis. In the present review, we have summarized all of the miRNAs which have been significantly involved in thyroid tumor cells migration and invasion. We also categorized all of the reported miRNAs based on their cellular processes to clarify the molecular role of miRNAs during thyroid tumor cell migration and invasion. This review paves the way of introducing a non-invasive diagnostic and prognostic panel of miRNAs in aggressive and metastatic TC patients.

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms as important risk factors of diabetes among Middle East population.

Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder that leads to the dysfunction of various tissues and organs, including eyes, kidneys, and cardiovascular system. According to the World Health Organization, diabetes prevalence is 8.8% globally among whom about 90% of cases are type 2 diabetes. There are not any significant clinical manifestations in the primary stages of diabetes. Therefore, screening can be an efficient way to reduce the diabetic complications. Over the recent decades, the prevalence of diabetes has increased alarmingly among the Middle East population, which has imposed exorbitant costs on the health care system in this region. Given that the genetic changes are among the important risk factors associated with predisposing people to diabetes, we examined the role of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the pathogenesis of diabetes among Middle East population. In the present review, we assessed the molecular pathology of diabetes in the Middle East population that paves the way for introducing an efficient SNP-based diagnostic panel for diabetes screening among the Middle East population. Since, the Middle East has a population of 370 million people; the current review can be a reliable model for the introduction of SNP-based diagnostic panels in other populations and countries around the world.