H-151, a Selective STING Inhibitor, Has Potential as a Treatment for Neovascular Age-Related Macular Degeneration.

Purpose: The cyclic guanosine monophosphate-adenosine monophosphate synthase (cGAS) stimulator of interferon gene (STING) pathway is a crucial cascade in the inflammatory response initiated by the recognition of cytosolic double-stranded DNA (dsDNA). The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of STING inhibitor in murine choroidal neovascularization (CNV). Methods: To investigate whether the cGAS-STING pathway is activated during CNV, CNV was induced using laser photocoagulation in male C57BL/6J mice. The expression of change of cGAS and STING during CNV development was confirmed by Western-blotting. H-151, a potent STING palmitoylation antagonist, was used as a STING inhibitor. H-151 was administered intravitreally immediately after laser induction. To confirm the role of the cGAS-STING pathway in CNV formation, we evaluated CNV size and performed fundus fluorescein angiography. Results: The expression levels of cGAS and STING were significantly upregulated in the RPE-choroid complex after CNV induction, and dsDNA merged with cGAS was observed in CNV lesions. Intravitreal administration of H-151 suppressed CNV development and fluorescent leakage from neovessels. In CNV lesions, the high expression of STING and cGAS was observed in infiltrating F4/80+ macrophages. H-151 administration attenuated downstream signals of the cGAS-STING pathway, including the phosphorylation of nuclear factor-κB, and downregulated the expression of interleukin 1ß. Conclusions: These findings support that the inhibition of cGAS-STING pathway treats abnormal ocular angiogenesis.

BCL6B Contributes to Ocular Vascular Diseases via Notch Signal Silencing.

BACKGROUND: Endothelial cell activation is tightly controlled by the balance between VEGF (vascular endothelial cell growth factor) and Notch signaling pathway. VEGF destabilizes blood vessels and promotes neovascularization, which are common features of sight-threatening ocular vascular disorders. Here, we show that BCL6B (B-cell CLL/lymphoma 6 member B protein), also known as BAZF, ZBTB28, and ZNF62, plays a pivotal role in the development of retinal edema and neovascularization. METHODS: The pathophysiological physiological role of BCL6B was investigated in cellular and animal models mimicking 2 pathological conditions: retinal vein occlusion and choroidal neovascularization. An in vitro experimental system was used in which human retinal microvascular endothelial cells were supplemented with VEGF. Choroidal neovascularization cynomolgus monkey model was generated to investigate the involvement of BCL6B in the pathogenesis. Mice lacking BCL6B or treated with BCL6B-targeting small-interfering ribose nucleic acid were examined for histological and molecular phenotypes. RESULTS: In retinal endothelial cells, the BCL6B expression level was increased by VEGF. BCL6B-deficient endothelial cells showed Notch signal activation and attenuated cord formation via blockage of the VEGF-VEGFR2 signaling pathway. Optical coherence tomography images showed that choroidal neovascularization lesions were decreased by BCL6B-targeting small-interfering ribose nucleic acid. Although BCL6B mRNA expression was significantly increased in the retina, BCL6B-targeting small-interfering ribose nucleic acid suppressed ocular edema in the neuroretina. The increase in proangiogenic cytokines and breakdown of the inner blood-retinal barrier were abrogated in BCL6B knockout (KO) mice via Notch transcriptional activation by CBF1 (C promotor-binding factor 1) and its activator, the NICD (notch intracellular domain). Immunostaining showed that Müller cell activation, a source of VEGF, was diminished in BCL6B-KO retinas. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that BCL6B may be a novel therapeutic target for ocular vascular diseases characterized by ocular neovascularization and edema.

TRPV4 channels promote vascular permeability in retinal vascular disease.

This study aimed to determine the role of transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4), a calcium (Ca2+)-permeable cation channel, in the pathophysiology of retinal vascular disease. The retinal vein occlusion (RVO) murine model was created by irradiating retinal veins using lasers. TRPV4 expression and localization were evaluated in RVO mice retinas. In addition, we examined the effects of TRPV4 antagonists (RQ-00317310, HC-067047, GSK2193874, and GSK2798745) on retinal edema, blood flow, and ischemic areas in RVO mice. Furthermore, changes in the retinal expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and aquaporin4 (AQP4) by RQ-00317310 were analyzed using Western blot. We also assessed the barrier integrity of epithelial cell monolayers using trans-endothelial electrical resistance (TEER) in Human Retinal Microvascular Endothelial Cells (HRMECs). The expression of TRPV4 was significantly increased and co-localized with glutamine synthetase (GS), a Müller glial marker, in the ganglion cell layer (GCL) of the RVO mice. Moreover, RQ-00317310 administration ameliorated the development of retinal edema and ischemia in RVO mice. In addition, the up regulation of TNF-α and down-regulation of AQP4 were lessened by the treatment with RQ-00317310. Treatment with GSK1016790A, a TRPV4 agonist, increased vascular permeability, while RQ-00317310 treatment decreased vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)- or TRPV4-induced retinal vascular hyperpermeability in HRMECs. These findings suggest that TRPV4 plays a role in the development of retinal edema and ischemia. Thus, TRPV4 could be a new therapeutic target against the pathological symptoms of retinal vascular diseases.

The pathological association between the anterior eye segment and the retina in a murine model of neovascular glaucoma.

Neovascular glaucoma (NVG) is caused by the formation of new blood vessels in the angle, iris, and cornea in retinal ischemic disease, such as proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR) and retinal vein occlusion (RVO), which can reduce the visual acuity. However, the pathophysiological symptoms of NVG are still not well understood because there is no model for the formation of NVG in the angle, iris, and cornea. The aim of this study was to investigate the involvement of NVG during ischemic disease, in a murine model of retinal ischemia. We evaluated the changes of the intraocular pressure (IOP) and pathological symptoms in the anterior eye segment and retina in this model, and the changes in the RNA or protein expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and fibrosis-related factors were analyzed in the retina and cornea by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction or western blot, respectively. Furthermore, we examined the changes in IOP after intravitreal injection of an anti-VEGF antibody. First, NVG formed in the retinal ischemic murine model, and the IOP was elevated in mice with NVG formation. Interestingly, VEGF expression was decreased in the retina but increased in the cornea in the murine model of NVG. On the other hand, fibrosis-related factors were increased in the retina and also significantly increased in the cornea in NVG. Moreover, the administration of anti-VEGF antibody immediately after vessel occlusion suppressed the increase in IOP, but administration at 7 days after vessel occlusion accelerated the increase in IOP. These findings suggest that the formation of NVG may be correlated with the pathological symptoms of retinal ischemic disease, via changes in VEGF and fibrosis-related factor expression.

Role of Activating Transcription Factor 4 in Murine Choroidal Neovascularization Model.

Neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD) featuring choroidal neovascularization (CNV) is the principal cause of irreversible blindness in elderly people in the world. Integrated stress response (ISR) is one of the intracellular signals to be adapted to various stress conditions including endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. ISR signaling results in the upregulation of activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4), which is a mediator of ISR. Although recent studies have suggested ISR contributes to the progression of some age-related disorders, the effects of ATF4 on the development of CNV remain unclear. Here, we performed a murine model of laser-induced CNV and found that ATF4 was highly expressed in endothelial cells of the blood vessels of the CNV lesion site. Exposure to integrated stress inhibitor (ISRIB) reduced CNV formation, vascular leakage, and the upregulation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in retinal pigment epithelium (RPE)-choroid-sclera complex. In human retinal microvascular endothelial cells (HRMECs), ISRIB reduced the level of ATF4 and VEGF induced by an ER stress inducer, thapsigargin, and recombinant human VEGF. Moreover, ISRIB decreased the VEGF-induced cell proliferation and migration of HRMECs. Collectively, our findings showed that pro-angiogenic effects of ATF4 in endothelial cells may be a potentially therapeutic target for patients with nAMD.

Free-Radical Scavenger NSP-116 Protects the Corneal Epithelium against UV-A and Blue LED Light Exposure.

The corneal epithelium is continuously exposed to oxygen, light, and environmental substances. Excessive exposure to those stresses is thought to be a risk factor for eye diseases. Photokeratitis is damage to the corneal epithelium resulting in a painful eye condition caused by unprotected exposure to UV rays, usually from sunlight, and is often found in people who spend a long time outdoors. In modern life, human eyes are exposed to artificial light from light-emitting diode (LED) displays of computers and smartphones, and it has been shown that short-wavelength (blue) LED light can damage eyes, especially photoreceptors. However, the effect of blue LED light on the cornea is less understood. In addition, it is important to develop new treatments for preserving human eyesight and eye health from light stress. Here, we used human corneal epithelial cells-transformed (HCE-T) cells as an in-vitro model to investigate the protective effect of NSP-116, an imidazolyl aniline derivative, against the oxidative stress induced by light in the corneal epithelium. Treatment with 10 µM NSP-116 significantly increased the cell viability and reduced the death ratio following UV or blue LED light exposure. Furthermore, NSP-116 treatment decreased light-induced reactive oxygen species production and preserved the mitochondrial membrane potential. Immunoblotting data showed that NSP-116 suppressed the stress response pathway. Finally, NSP-116 treatment prevented corneal epithelial apoptosis induced by blue LED light in an in-vivo mouse model. In conclusion, NSP-116 has a protective effect against oxidative stress and corneal cell death from both UV and blue LED light exposure.

Guanabenz and Clonidine, α2-Adrenergic Receptor Agonists, Inhibit Choroidal Neovascularization.

BACKGROUND: Neovascular age-related macular degeneration (AMD) with choroidal neovascularization (CNV) is a leading cause of blindness in elderly people. Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF)-drugs are used to treat AMD patients; however, some patients are resistant to these therapies. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the anti-angiogenic effects of α2-adrenergic agonists, including guanabenz and clonidine. METHODS: We evaluated the anti-angiogenic effects of α2-adrenergic agonists in human retinal microvascular endothelial cells (HRMECs). A proliferation assay was conducted, and the migration ratio was evaluated. In a laser-induced CNV model, guanabenz and clonidine were delivered via intraperitoneal injection or implantation of an osmotic pump device. Fourteen days following CNV induction, CNV lesion size and fundus fluorescein angiography (FFA) were evaluated. RESULTS: Guanabenz and clonidine inhibited VEGF-induced retinal endothelial cell growth and migration. In the CNV model mice, CNV lesion sizes were reduced by intraperitoneal administration of guanabenz or clonidine. Data, including body weight, systolic blood pressure, and heart rate showed that guanabenz (0.5 and 2.0 mg/kg/day) had little effect on these parameters; conversely, a high dose of clonidine (1.0 mg/kg/day) did affect these parameters. Additionally, clonidine did not affect CNV size, but continuous administration of guanabenz attenuated both CNV size and leakage from neovessels. CONCLUSION: Our study suggests a key role for α2-adrenergic receptors during CNV formation. Therefore, we suggest that α2-adrenergic receptor agonists may represent novel therapeutic drugs for patients with neovascular AMD.

Oral administration of NSP-116, a free radical scavenger, suppresses the symptoms of retinal vein occlusion in the murine model.

Retinal vein occlusion (RVO) is an intractable eye disease that results in reduced visual acuity, associated with retinal ischemia, hemorrhage, and edema. RVO results in excessive ROS production in the retina, causing inflammation and retinal edema. A free radical scavenger, 4-(4-acetylpiperazin-1-yl)-2-(1H-imidazole-1-yl) aniline (NSP-116), has been reported to demonstrate antioxidative effects and prevent ROS production in the retina. Therefore, NSP-116 may represent a useful drug for treating the pathological symptoms of RVO, such as retinal edema and ischemic symptoms. This study aimed to investigate the effects of NSP-116 in a murine model of RVO. We evaluated the thickness of the retinal layer and the size of the non-perfused area following the oral administration of NSP-116. Moreover, we used western blot analysis to examine the expression levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, after NSP-116 administration, and examined the localization of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), by immunostaining. The findings indicate that NSP-116 suppressed retinal edema and expansion the non-perfused area by suppressing the increased expression of VEGF, TNF-α, and 8-OHdG in the murine RVO model. In conclusion, the oral administration of NSP-116 may serve as an effective pharmacological treatment for the pathological symptoms of RVO.

Excess adiponectin in eyes with progressive ocular vascular diseases.

Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) therapies are now the first-line treatment for many ocular diseases, but some patients are non-responders to these therapies. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the level of adiponectin increased the pathogenesis of retinal edema and neovascularization in the retina of progressive ocular vascular diseases. We examined the role played by adiponectin in two types of cells and animal models which are retinal vein occlusion (RVO) and oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) mice. Our results showed that an injection of anti-adiponectin antibody ameliorated the retinal edema and ischemia through the depression of the expression level of VEGF-related factors and tight junction-related proteins in the retina of RVO mice. The intravitreal injection of anti-adiponectin antibody also decreased the degree of retinal neovascularization in an OIR mice. In addition, exposure of human retinal microvascular endothelial cells and human brain microvascular pericytes in culture to adiponectin increased both the vascular permeability and neovascularization through the increase of inflammatory factor and the dropout of the pericytes. These findings indicate that adiponectin plays a critical role in retinal edema and neovascularization, and adiponectin is a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of diabetic macular edema, proliferative diabetic retinopathy, and RVO.

SMN Protein Contributes to Skeletal Muscle Cell Maturation Via Caspase-3 and Akt Activation.

BACKGROUND/AIM: In spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), systemic deficiency of survival motor neurons (SMN) caused by loss or mutation of SMN1 leads to SMA symptoms. SMA was, for a long time, considered as a selective motor-neuron disease. However, accumulated evidence suggests that skeletal muscle cells are affected by low levels of SMN protein. The purpose of this study was to elucidate the function of SMN protein in skeletal cell differentiation and maturation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In SMNΔ7 mice, which exhibit a systemic reduction of SMN protein, muscle atrophy was evaluated. To direct the effect of SMN against muscle cells, SMN functions were examined by knockdown of SMN in mouse myoblasts cell line C2C12 using siRNA. RESULTS: SMNΔ7 mice showed muscle atrophy accompanied by decreased both expression of a myogenesis marker and a proliferating marker. In SMN-knockdown myoblasts, early expression of myosin heavy chain and reduced multinuclear myotube formation were found. Decreased caspase-3 activity and reduced phosphorylation of Akt were observed at an early stage of differentiation in SMN-knockdown myoblasts. CONCLUSION: A critical role of SMN protein in muscle cell differentiation via caspase-3 and Akt activation was shown.

ANKFY1 is essential for retinal endothelial cell proliferation and migration via VEGFR2/Akt/eNOS pathway.

Dysregulation of endothelial cell proliferation and migration are hallmarks of angiogenic diseases. Among them, excessive ocular angiogenesis is a major cause of blindness. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2) signaling plays crucial roles in angiogenesis, endothelial cell proliferation and migration. Here, we showed that ankyrin repeat and FYVE domain containing 1 (ANKFY1), a Rab5-GTP-interacting protein, is required for retinal endothelial cell proliferation and migration. ANKFY1 knockdown significantly suppressed cell growth of human retinal microvascular endothelial cells (HRMECs) in the presence or absence of VEGF. HRMEC migration was also inhibited by depletion of ANKFY1. Western blot analysis showed that ANKFY1 knockdown reduced cell surface VEGFR2 level. In contrast, qRT-PCR analysis indicated that ANKFY1 knockdown had no effect on VEGFR2 mRNA levels. We also found that the attenuation of the protein kinase B/endothelial nitric oxide synthase (Akt/eNOS) pathway in ANKFY1 knockdown HRMECs. In conclusion, our findings revealed novel functions of ANKFY1 in cell growth and migration of retinal endothelial cells.

Identification of VGF nerve growth factor inducible-producing cells in human spinal cords and expression change in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a serious disease characterized by the degeneration of motor neurons resulting in muscle weakness and paralysis. The neuroendocrine polypeptide VGF is localized in the central nervous system and peripheral endocrine neurons and is cleaved into several polypeptides with multiple functions. Previous studies revealed that VGF was decreased in the cerebrospinal fluid of ALS model mice and sporadic ALS patients. However, it is unknown which cells supply VGF in the spinal cord and a detailed localization is lacking. In this study, we evaluated the VGF-producing cells and protein localization using in situ hybridization and immunostaining in the spinal cords of ALS and control patients. VGF mRNA was localized both in the dorsal and anterior horns of the spinal cords. Moreover, in the anterior horn, VGF mRNA co-localized with a neurofilament heavy chain, which is a motor neuron marker, and VGF mRNA-positive motor neurons were decreased in the spinal cords of ALS patients. We revealed that VGF protein level was decreased in the anterior horn of ALS patients; however, the expression level of VGF protein was not changed in the posterior horn or white matter. Furthermore, the expression level of VGF protein was conserved in ALS patients with long-term survival. These results reveal that VGF is mainly supplied by human motor neurons, and suggest that VGF expression changes may be involved in ALS pathology.

Potential effects of progranulin and granulins against retinal photoreceptor cell degeneration.

Purpose: The authors previously reported that progranulin attenuated retinal degeneration. The present study focused on the role of progranulin and its cleavage products, granulins, in the pathogenesis of photoreceptor degeneration. Methods: Photoreceptor degeneration was induced with excessive exposure of murine photoreceptor cells and the retinas of albino mice to white fluorescent light. Damaged photoreceptor cells and retinas were examined using a cell death assay, western blotting, and immunostaining. Results: Even after proteolytic cleavage, treatment with progranulin or its cleavage products or both exerted protective effects on photoreceptors against light exposure. In the murine retina, the expression levels of granulins and the macrophage and microglia marker Iba-1 were increased at 48 h after light exposure. Additionally, progranulin+ and Iba-1+ double-positive cells had accumulated in the outer nuclear layer, the primary location of photoreceptor cells. Conclusions: These results suggest that progranulin or its cleavage products, granulins, or both may be therapeutic targets for age-related macular degeneration and other neurodegenerative diseases.