Motivaciones hacia la actividad física de adolescentes, adultos mayores y exdeportistas de élite: Un análisis cualitativo / Motivations toward Physical Activity of Adolescents, Older Adults and Former Elite Athletes: A Qualitative Analysis / Motivações para a atividade física em adolescentes, idosos e ex-atletas de elite: Uma análise qualitativa

Resumen Objetivo. Explorar las similitudes y diferencias de los tipos de motivación hacia la práctica de actividad física (AF) de adolescentes, adultos mayores y exdeportistas de élite, desde la Teoría de la Autodeterminación, para la creación de programas de AF. Método. La recolección de los datos se llevó a cabo mediante grupos focales: tres con adolescentes, dos con adultos mayores y uno con exdeportistas. En total, participaron 17 adolescentes, 14 adultos mayores y cuatro exdeportistas. Se realizó un análisis temático. Resultados. Para cada grupo se encontró un conjunto de factores de motivación autónoma, controlada y amotivacionales hacia la práctica de AF. En común, en los tres grupos estudiados, se identificaron la diversión, la socialización y la salud como factores de motivación hacia la práctica de AF. Conclusión. Las orientaciones para la creación de programas de AF para adolescentes se centraron en la individualización de sus objetivos y la percepción en la libertad de elección relacionada con cada AF. En adultos mayores, el enfoque fue hacia nuevas experiencias, considerando de forma significativa el perfil del monitor. Para el grupo de exdeportistas se propone que el punto de partida sea la reconceptualización de la práctica de AF después de la carrera deportiva.

Abstract Objective. To explore the similarities and differences between the types of motivation towards the practice of physical activity (PA) in different populations (adolescents, older adults and former elite athletes) for the creation of PA programs that reflect the particularities of those populations. Method. The qualitative data collection was carried out through focus groups; three groups with adolescents, two with older adults and one with former elite athletes. In total, 17 adolescents, 14 older adults and four former elite athletes participated in this study. A thematic analysis was conducted. Results. The results are shown based on autonomous, controlled motivation and amotivation towards the practice of physical activity for each group. Fun, socialization and health have been identified as motivating factors towards the PA practice common in the three groups studied. Conclusion. Orientations are proposed for the creation of PA programs. For adolescents, the proposal would include the individualization of their objectives and the perception of the freedom of choice in relation to the PA. For the group of older adults, it is important to offer new experiences, taking into account the profile of the monitor. For the group of former elite athletes, the proposed starting point would be the reconceptualization of the PA practice after the athletic career.

Resumo Escopo. Explorar as similitudes e as diferencias dos tipos de motivação para a prática física (AF) de adolescentes, idosos, e ex-atletas de elite, desde a Teoria da Autodeterminação, para a criação de programas de AF. Metodologia. A recolecção de dados foi feita em grupos focais: três com adolescentes, dois com idosos e um com ex-atletas. Foi realizada uma análise temática. Resultados. Para cada grupo foi encontrado um conjunto de fatores de motivação autónoma, controlada e amotivacionais para a prática de AF. Em comum, nos três grupos estudados, foram identificadas a diversão, a socialização e a saúde como fatores de motivação para a prática de AF. Conclusão. As orientações para a criação de programas de AF para adolescentes estiveram centradas na individualização dos seus escopos e a percepção na liberdade de eleição relacionada com cada AF. Nos idosos, o enfoque foi para as novas experiências, considerando de forma significativa o perfil do monitor. Para o grupo de ex-atletas se propõe que o ponto de partida seja a reconceptualização da prática de AF depois da carreira esportiva.

The Effect of Coaches' Controlling Style on the Competitive Anxiety of Young Athletes.

Framed on a Self-Determination Theory perspective, the purpose of this study was to explore the predictive capacity of coaches' interpersonal controlling style on the competitive anxiety of young athletes, considering the mediating effect of the athletes' controlled motivation on this relationship. The sample consisted of 1166 athletes, aged between 9 and 18, who ranked their perceptions of coaches' controlling style, as well as the reasons for participating in sport and their competitive anxiety before or during competition. The structural models assessing both the direct effect of the controlling style on the anxiety and the complete mediated effect of the controlled motivation on this relationship revealed good fit indices. However, a significant difference of the chi-square was obtained when comparing these models to the partial mediation model, providing evidence of this last model to be more adequate to describe the relationship between coaches' controlling style and athletes' competitive anxiety. Positive significant effects of coach controlling style on the three forms of competitive anxiety were found (ß CS-SA = 0.21, p < 0.001; ß CS-W = 0.14, p < 0.001; ß CS-CD = 0.30, p < 0.001) indicating that coach controlling style could be an antecedent for athletes' anxiety in a direct way. Although this style also predicts athletes' motivation to participate, this indirect path seems to predict competitive anxiety in a less clear way. We discuss our results facing them up to Vallerand's hierarchical model postulates, focusing on the relevant influence of coaches on the young athletes' experience in the sport context.

Women Occupying Management Positions in Top-Level Sport Organizations: A Self-Determination Perspective / Mujeres que ocupan cargos de gestión en organizaciones deportivas de primer nivel: una perspectiva desde la autodeterminación

Framed in Self-determination theory (SDT), the purpose of this research was to examine whether the working environment of women in sport management positions could fulfil or thwart their basic psychological needs (BPN) and to explore the motivations that women managers experience in these positions. Eight female managers of top-level sport organizations participated in semi-structured interviews. Results showed that seven of them reported being in an environment that fulfilled their BPN and experienced autonomous motivation in their job. In contrast, one participant reported working in a context that thwarted her BPN and experienced controlled motivation. We present contextual antecedents that were considered satisfying or thwarting of the BPN of those women enrolled in management positions. Insomuch as BPN satisfaction is expected to be related to autonomous motivation and well-being, the current study provides a first insight regarding how sport organizations could promote women managers’ BPN satisfaction and thus increase their autonomous motivation and well-being in such positions

Bajo el marco teórico de la Teoría de la Autodeterminación (SDT), el propósito del presente estudio fue investigar si el entorno laboral de mujeres que ocupaban cargos directivos en el deporte era de satisfacción o frustración de las necesidades psicológicas básicas (BPN), y explorar sus motivaciones en estas posiciones. Se realizaron entrevistas semiestructuradas a ocho directivas de organizaciones deportivas de primer nivel. Los resultados mostraron que siete de ellas reportaron estar en un entorno de satisfacción de las BPN y experimentaban motivación autónoma en su trabajo. Por el contrario, una participante reportó trabajar en un contexto de frustración de las BPN y experimentaba motivación controlada. Presentamos los antecedentes contextuales expuestos por las directivas que consideramos de satisfacción o frustración de sus BPN. Asumiendo que la satisfacción de las BPN está relacionada con la motivación autónoma y el bienestar, el presente trabajo proporciona una primera aproximación sobre cómo las organizaciones deportivas podrían promover la satisfacción de las BPN de las directivas y aumentar así su motivación autónoma y bienestar en el cargo

Seguimiento de la transición a la universidad en mujeres deportistas de alto rendimiento / Follow up of the transition to university of female elite athletes

Este estudio de caso longitudinal se enmarca en el modelo holístico (Wylleman, Reints, y De Knop, 2013). La transición a la universidad es uno de los momentos más importantes para los deportistas durante su carrera dual. Sin embargo, no hay estudios centrados en cómo viven las mujeres deportistas esta transición. El objetivo es explorar la transición a la universidad de deportistas de alto rendimiento mujeres durante su carrera dual en España. Se realizaron entrevistas semi-estructuradas a tres deportistas en cuatro momentos temporales de su transición a la universidad. La primera se realizó en segundo de bachillerato y la última en el segundo curso universitario. Los resultados muestran las fases que las deportistas experimentan durante la transición (i.e., preparación, inmersión, aprendizaje y adaptación) y cómo perciben cada fase. Se aporta información práctica, sensible a las especificidades de género, para facilitar la carrera dual de las deportistas durante su transición a la universidad (AU)

The present longitudinal case study is framed in the holistic model (Wylleman, Reints, and De Knop, 2013). Transition to University is one of the most important moments for athletes during their dual career. However, there are no studies focused on how women athletes experience this transition. The aim of the present study is to explore the transition to University of female elite athletes during their dual career in Spain. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with three elite athletes at four moments during their transition to University. First interview was conducted during the last High School course. Last interview was conducted in the second University course. Results show the phases that women athletes experience during the transition to University (i.e., preparation, immersion, learning and adaptation) and how they perceive each phase. Being sensitive to gender specificities, our study provides practical information to facilitate dual career of female elite athletes during their transition to University (AU)

Student-athletes’ perceptions of four dual career competencies / Percepción de cuatro competencias para la Carrera dual en estudiantes-deportistas

In order to assess athletes’ competencies required for a successful combination of elite sport and education, the perceptions of 107 Flemish elite student-athletes of the importance, possession, and need to develop four dual career competencies (DC management, DCM; Career Planning, CPL; Mental Toughness, MTO; Social Intelligence and Adaptability, SIA) were investigated using the Dual Career Competency Questionnaire for Athletes (DCCQ-A; De Brandt et al., 2017). Participants perceived all four competencies as important for a successful DC, reported average to good possession of DC competencies, and perceived a general need to develop their DC competencies. Female student-athletes rated the importance of three of four DC competencies (DCM, CPL, SIA) as well as their perceived possession of the competency DCM higher than their male counterparts, and evaluated a stronger need to develop the competencies MTO and SIA. The study confirmed the relevance (high importance) of the four DC competencies in a sample of Flemish student-athletes, and recommends that gender differences be considered in the development of student-athletes’ DC competencies (AU)

Con el objetivo de evaluar las competencias necesarias para combinar con éxito el deporte de élite y la educación, se han investigado las percepciones de importancia, posesión y necesidad de desarrollo de competencias para la Carrera Dual (CD; Gestión de CD, DCM; Planificación de Carrera, CPL; Fortaleza Mental MTO; Inteligencia social y Adaptabilidad, SIA respectivamente por sus siglas en inglés) en 107 estudiantes-deportistas Flamencos mediante el Cuestionario de Competencias para la Carrera Dual de Deportistas (DCCQ-A, por sus siglas en inglés; De Brandt et al., 2017). Los participantes perciben las cuatro dimensiones de competencias como importantes para una CD exitosa, reportan una posesión entre media y buena de competencias y, aun así perciben una necesidad general de mejorar sus competencias para la CD. Las estudiantes-deportistas femeninas puntúan la importancia de tres de las cuatro competencias (DCM, CPL, SIA) así como la posesión percibida de DCM más alta que los deportistas masculinos, y evalúan una necesidad más fuerte de desarrollar las competencias MTO y SIA. El estudio ha confirmado la relevancia (alta importancia) de las cuatro competencias de CD en una muestra de estudiantes-deportistas Flamencos y sugiere que debe tenerse en cuenta las diferencias de género, en el desarrollo de las competencias para seguir una CD estudios-deporte (AU)

Competencias para la planificación de la carrera dual de deportistas de alto rendimiento / Competences for planning elite sports atheltes dual career

El objetivo de este estudio es explorar las competencias más importantes para la planificación de la carrera dual (CD) dependiendo del nivel académico. Participaron 138 deportistas-estudiantes de alto rendimiento y se dividieron en tres grupos según se nivel académico: (a) Educación secundaria (Medad =15,82; DT = 0,62); (b) Bachillerato (Medad = 17,37; DT = 1,03); y (c) Universidad (Medad = 21,48; DT = 2,34). Se utilizó la versión traducida al castellano y al catalán del Dual Career Competency Questionnaire for Athletes (DCCQ-A), en el que los participantes elegían las 5 competencias más importantes para la planificación de la CD. Los resultados muestran que la dedicación y la toma de decisiones son las competencias más importantes para la planificación de la CD en los tres grupos. Por otro lado, ocho competencias difieren en los tres niveles académicos estudiados. Ya que las competencias importantes muestran ser transversales y estables en el tiempo durante los distintos momentos de carrera, se recomienda adquirirlas en etapas de iniciación y desarrollarlas a lo largo de todas las etapas de la CD, facilitando la gestión de las distintas situaciones (e.g., transiciones de carrera) (AU)

The aim of the present study was to explore the most important Dual Career (DC) planning competences depending on the academic level. One-hundred and thirty-eight elite student-athletes were divided in three groups: (a) Secondary education (Mage = 15.18; DT = 0,62); (b) High School (Mage = 17,37; DT = 1,03); and (c) University (Mage = 21,48; DT = 2,34). Student-athletes Spanish and Catalan version of Dual Career Competency Questionnaire for Athletes (DCCQ-A), where elite student-athletes choose the 5 most important competences to plan their own dual career. Results shows that dedication to succeed and capability to make decisions were the most important competences chosen by student-athletes. On the other hand, eight competencies to plan were different between the tree groups studied. As the most important competences have shown to be transversals and stables on time during all the stages studied, we recommend to acquire them during initiation stage and develop them throughout all stages of dual career. This, could facilitate to student athletes to manage different situations during their dual career in a medium and long term (e.g., career transitions) (AU)

Future Achievements, Passion and Motivation in the Transition from Junior-to-Senior Sport in Spanish Young Elite Soccer Players.

Within the context of the transition from junior-to-senior sport, this study aims in first place to explore differences in young Spanish elite soccer players based on the importance given to getting different achievements in their future (including sport, studies and private life) and, in second place, to explore differences among those players in levels of passion, motivation and basic psychological need. 478 elite youth soccer filled out a questionnaire based on the presented theoretical models. A cluster analysis shows a sport oriented group (N = 98) only interested in becoming a professional, a life spheres balance group (N = 288) characterized by balancing the importance of achievements in the sport sphere, as well as in education and a private life and a group (N = 91) only interested in private life achievements. The life spheres balance group shows higher levels of harmonious passion (η2 = .06, F(2, 475) = 9.990, p < .001) than the players of the other groups. The life spheres balance group shows higher levels of autonomous motivation (η2 = .10, F(2, 475) = 13.597, p < .001), autonomy (η2 = .07, F(2, 475) = 6.592, p < .01) and relatedness satisfaction (η2 = .07, F(2, 475) = 5.603, p < .01) than the sport oriented group as well as lower levels of amotivation (η2 = .04, F(2, 475) = 6.665, p < .01) than the private life oriented group. This study suggests players who perceive equal future importance in their life spheres appear to be more resourceful than the other two groups regarding athletes' internal resources, such as passion and motivation, to cope with the transition to professional soccer.

Future achievements, passion and motivation in the transition from junior-to-senior sport in Spanish young elite soccer players

Within the context of the transition from junior-to-senior sport, this study aims in first place to explore differences in young Spanish elite soccer players based on the importance given to getting different achievements in their future (including sport, studies and private life) and, in second place, to explore differences among those players in levels of passion, motivation and basic psychological need. 478 elite youth soccer filled out a questionnaire based on the presented theoretical models. A cluster analysis shows a sport oriented group (N = 98) only interested in becoming a professional, a life spheres balance group (N = 288) characterized by balancing the importance of achievements in the sport sphere, as well as in education and a private life and a group (N = 91) only interested in private life achievements. The life spheres balance group shows higher levels of harmonious passion (η2 = .06, F(2, 475) = 9.990, p < .001) than the players of the other groups. The life spheres balance group shows higher levels of autonomous motivation (η2 = .10, F(2, 475) = 13.597, p < .001), autonomy (η2 = .07, F(2, 475) = 6.592, p < .01) and relatedness satisfaction (η2 = .07, F(2, 475) = 5.603, p < .01) than the sport oriented group as well as lower levels of amotivation (η2 = .04, F(2, 475) = 6.665, p < .01) than the private life oriented group. This study suggests players who perceive equal future importance in their life spheres appear to be more resourceful than the other two groups regarding athletes’ internal resources, such as passion and motivation, to cope with the transition to professional soccer (AU)

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El fútbol dentro del campo y fuera de él: Desafíos en la transición a la élite / Football on and off the field. Challenges in transition from junior to elite / O futebol dentro e fora de campo: desafios na transição para a elite

Una de las transiciones que ha recibido menos atención en la literatura científica es la transición de junior al deporte profesional, en concreto al fútbol de élite. Basados en el modelo de desarrollo deportivo de Wylleman y Lavallee (2004), el objetivo de este estudio es explorar de forma retrospectiva los desafíos que tuvieron que afrontar futbolistas junior al realizar la transición a la élite del fútbol. Además, se analizan las especificidades de los desafíos en función del género al realizar dicha transición. Se entrevistaron 8 chicos y 8 chicas sobre sus experiencias en la transición a la élite del fútbol. Los resultados se distribuyen en dos apartados principales: desafíos asociados al fútbol dentro del campo y desafíos asociados al fútbol fuera del campo (e.g., estructura, concepción social). El análisis de contenido muestra que los desafíos a los que tienen que hacer frente los futbolistas dentro del campo se asocian a los niveles deportivo y psicológico. Los desafíos fuera del campo además de asociarse con estos dos niveles, se asocian también a los niveles psicosocial y académico/laboral. Las diferencias respecto a los desafíos que se encuentran chicos y chicas se asocian únicamente a la categoría fútbol fuera del campo. Se discute la relevancia de afrontar con éxito estos desafíos y su importancia para una correcta adaptación a la élite del fútbol

One of the transitions that has received less attention in the scientific literature is the transition from junior to professional sport specifically in football. Based on the development model of Wylleman and Lavallee (2004), the objective of this study is to explore the challenges that juniors football players had in making the transition into elite football in a retrospective manner. In addition, this study analyse specificities challenges of this transition according to gender. 8 males and 8 females were interviewed about their experience with the transition to elite football. The results are divided into two main topics: challenges associated with the football on the field and challenges associated with the football off the field (e.g., structure, social conception). The analysis shows that challenges that football players must cope on the field are produced on the athletes and psychological levels. Off the field challenges are produced too on those levels and, in addition, on psychosocial and academic/laboral levels. Relevance to face with success these challenges and their importance for correct adaptation to the elite of football is discussion

Uma das transições que tem recebido menos atenção na literatura científica é a transição de júnior para o desporto profissional, em concretopara o futebol de elite. Baseado no modelo de desenvolvimento desportivo de Wylleman e Lavallee (2004), o objectivo deste estudo foi explorar deforma retrospectiva os desafios que enfrentaram os futebolistas juniores ao realizar a transição para a elite do futebol. Adicionalmente, foram analisadasas especificidades dos desafios em função do género. Foram entrevistados 8 rapazes e 8 raparigas acerca das suas experiências na transição para a elitedo futebol. Os resultados são distribuídos em duas secções principais: desafios associados ao futebol dentro de campo e desafios associados ao futebolfora do campo (e.g., estrutura, concepção social). A análise de conteúdo revela que os desafios que os futebolistas têm que enfrentar dentro de campo seassociam aos níveis desportivo e psicológico. Os desafios fora do campo, para além de se associarem a estes dois níveis, também se associam aos níveispsicossocial e académico/laboral. As diferenças referentes aos desafios que se verificam nos rapazes e raparigas associam-se unicamente à categoria fu-tebol fora do campo. É discutida a relevância de enfrentar com êxito estes desafios e a sua importância para uma correcta adaptação ao futebol de elite

How Coaches' Motivations Mediate Between Basic Psychological Needs and Well-Being/Ill-Being.

PURPOSE: The purpose of the present research was to test how behavioral regulations are mediated between basic psychological needs and psychological well-being and ill-being in a sample of team-sport coaches. Based on self-determination theory, we hypothesized a model where satisfaction and thwarting of the basic psychological needs predicted coaches' behavioral regulations, which in turn led them to experience well-being (i.e., subjective vitality, positive affect) or ill-being (i.e., perceived stress, negative affect). METHOD: Three-hundred and two coaches participated in the study (Mage = 25.97 years; 82% male). For each instrument employed, the measurement model with the best psychometric properties was selected from a sequence of nested models sustained by previous research, including exploratory structural equation models and confirmatory factor analysis. These measurement models were included in 3 structural equation models to test for mediation: partial mediation, complete mediation, and absence of mediation. RESULTS: The results provided support for the partial mediation model. Coaches' motivation mediated the relationships from both relatedness need satisfaction and basic psychological needs thwarting for coaches' well-being. In contrast, relationships between basic psychological needs satisfaction and thwarting and ill-being were only predicted by direct effects. CONCLUSION: Our results highlight that 3 conditions seem necessary for coaches to experience psychological well-being in their teams: basic psychological needs satisfaction, especially relatedness; lack of basic psychological needs thwarting; and self-determined motivation.

El lado oscuro de entrenar: Influencia del contexto deportivo sobre la experiencia negativa de entrenadores de baloncesto / The darker side of coaching: influence of sport context on the negativ experience of basketball coaches / O lado obscuro de treinar: influência do contexto desportivo na experiência negativa de treinadores debasquetebol

Enmarcado dentro de la Teoría de la Autodeterminación, el objetivo del presente estudio fue analizar la experiencia negativa de los entrenadores de formación, comprobando el ajuste de un modelo teórico en el que factores negativos del ambiente (e.g., presión del club para entrenar de una determinada manera, conflicto laboral-personal y percepción de la amotivación en los jugadores) predecían positivamente la frustración de las necesidades psicológicas de los entrenadores, y a su vez esta frustración influía positivamente en su amotivación para entrenar. Un total de 177 entrenadores de baloncesto (Medad = 21.74, 27.1% mujeres) participaron en el estudio. Como paso previo a su inclusión en el modelo estructural, se obtuvieron evidencias que apoyaron la fiabilidad y la estructura interna de las escalas, mediante análisis factoriales confirmatorios. Cabe destacar que para la frustración de las necesidades psicológicas básicas se optó por una estructura unifactorial, en lugar de la estructura de tres factores esperada según la teoría. Los resultados del modelo estructural apoyaron la validez del modelo hipotetizado, mostrando que la presión del club, el conflicto laboral-personal y la amotivación de los jugadores llevaban a los entrenadores a sufrir una experiencia deportiva más negativa (e.g., frustración de sus necesidades psicológicas y amotivación para entrenar)

Grounded in self-determination theory, the aim of the present study was to analyze the negative experiences of development coaches. To do so, we tested a theoretical model where negative environmental factors (i.e., club pressures regarding how to run practices, work-life conflict, and perception of players’ amotivation) were hypothesized to positively predict coaches’ basic psychological need thwarting, and in turn coaches’ need thwarting was expected to positively predict their amotivation for coaching. One hundred and seventy-seven basketball coaches (Mage = 21.74, 27.1% women) participated in the study. Before the inclusion of the scales in the structural equation model, we obtained evidence supporting their reliability and internal structure (i.e., using confirmatory factor analyses). It was noted that for coaches’ psychological need thwarting, the results supported the choice of a single factor structure, instead of the hypothesized 3-factor structure. The results of the structural equation model provided evidence supporting the validity of the theoretical model, showing that club pressures, work-life conflict, and players’ amotivation led coaches to suffer more negative sport experiences (i.e., psychological need thwarting and amotivation for coaching)

endo por base a Teoria da Auto-Determinação, o objectivo do presente estudo foi analisar a experiência negativa dos treinadores da formação,comprovar o ajustamento do modelo teórico no qual os factores negativos do contexto (e.g. pressão do clube para treinar de uma determinada forma,conflito laboral-pessoal e percepção de amotivação nos jogadores) prediziam positivamente a frustração das necessidades psicológicas dos treinadores,e por seu turno esta frustração influía positivamente na sua amotivação para treinar. Um total de 177 treinadores de basquetebol (Midade= 21.74, 27.1%mulheres) participaram no estudo. Como etapa prévia à sua inclusão no modelo estructural, foram obtidas evidências que suportavam a fidelidade e aestrutura interna das escalas, mediante análises factoriais confirmatórias. Destaca-se que para a frustração das necessidades psicológicas básicas se optoupor uma estrutura unifactorial, em vez de uma estructura de três factores expectável segundo a teoria. Os resultados do modelo estructural suportam avalidade do modelo hipotetizado, revelando que a pressão do clube, o conflito laboral-pessoal e a amotivação dos jogadores levavam a que os treinadoressofressem uma experiência desportiva mais negativa (e.g. frustração das suas necessidades psicológicas e amotivação para treinar)

Perceived distributed effort in team ball sports.

In this study, we explored the multifaceted concept of perceived mental and physical effort in team sport contexts where athletes must invest individual and shared efforts to reach a common goal. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with a convenience sample of 15 Catalan professional coaches (3 women and 12 men, 3 each from the following sports: volleyball, basketball, handball, soccer, and water polo) to gain their views of three perceived effort-related dimensions: physical, psychological, and tactical. From a theoretical thematic analysis, it was found that the perception of effort is closely related to how effort is distributed within the team. Moreover, coaches viewed physical effort in relation to the frequency and intensity of the players' involvement in the game. They identified psychological effort in situations where players pay attention to proper cues, and manage emotions under difficult circumstances. Tactical effort addressed the decision-making process of players and how they fulfilled their roles while taking into account the actions of their teammates and opponents. Based on these findings, a model of perceived distributed effort was developed, which delineates the elements that compose each of the aforementioned dimensions. Implications of perceived distributed effort in team coordination and shared mental models are discussed.

Less time, better quality. Shortening questionnaires to assess team environment and goal orientation.

When assessing team environments in youth sport, participants often spend substantial time responding to lots of items in questionnaires, causing a lack of efficiency (i.e. time and effort) and a decrease of data quality. The purpose of this work was to create short-forms of the questionnaires PeerMCYSQ, SCQPeer, TEOSQ, and also to analyse the existing short-form of the SCQCoach. In Study 1 we developed the short-forms of the instruments. We shortened the questionnaires by using both theory driven and data-driven criteria. In Study 2, we used also qualitative and quantitative data with the aim of validating the short-forms. Finally, in Study 3 we tested the last version of the short-forms and sought evidences concerning their criterion validity. The results showed evidence that supports the psychometric merit of these short-forms: (a) significantly less missing values were obtained; (b) all the factors obtained alpha values above .70; (c) confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated that the short-forms fitted the hypothesized models well; (d) correlations between variables were coherent with expectations, and (e) structural equation modeling results showed significant paths consistent with previous literature. On average, our participants only spent a third of the time used to complete the original questionnaires.

Retiring from elite sports in Greece and Spain.

The main objective of the present study was to compare the athletic retirement of elite Greek and Spanish athletes in terms of (a) pre-conditions of retirement, (b) transitional period, and (c) consequences of the transition. For this purpose, elite athletes from Greece (n = 76) and Spain (n = 57) described in retrospect their experience leaving competitive sports through the Retirement from Sports Survey (Alfermann, Stambulova, & Zemaityte, 2004). Separate one-way ANOVAs and chi-square tests revealed differences and similarities between the transitional processes of athletes from the two countries. More similarities than differences were detected in the retirement of Greek and Spanish athletes. Based on these commonalities, we proposed a Southern European perspective on the topic. According to the present results the main characteristics of this pattern could be the lack of retirement planning, high athletic identity after the sports career, and predominance of relocation in the sports world after retirement.

Revisitando a Simon &Martens: la ansiedad competitiva en deportes de iniciación / Simon & Martens revisited: competitive anxiety in youth sports

Este trabajo nace con la intención de recuperar y actualizar un artículo clásico de la psicología del deporte como es el de Simon y Martens del 1979. Como su antecesor, nuestro trabajo compara la ansiedad rasgo competitiva en deportes y actividades lúdicas que se clasifican en base a dos variables de agrupación: la Colaboración, que diferencia entre actividades individuales y colectivas, y la Habilidad, que separa aquellas actividades que requieren de habilidades habituales de las que requieren de habilidades perceptivas. 643 deportistas y 140 castellers contestaron la Escala de Ansiedad Competitiva-2 y sus puntuaciones fueron comparadas mediante análisis de la varianza en función de las variables Colaboración, Habilidad y la interacción entre ambas. Los resultados indican que en aquellas actividades cuya habilidad es de tipo habitual, aparecen niveles más altos en el factor de Ansiedad Somática y Preocupación. Además, los participantes en deportes individuales relatan mayores niveles de Desconcentración que aquellos que realizan deportes o actividades colectivas. Se detecta también un efecto interactivo de las variables colaboración y habilidad sobre la Preocupación. Se ha realizado una comparación adicional deportistas y castellers, como actividad evaluativa no deportiva, revelando que el nivel de Ansiedad Somática de los castellers es equivalente al de los deportistas, pero que en las variables de Preocupación y Desconcentración los deportistas relatan niveles significativamente mayores. Finalmente se discute la importancia de conocer las características de cada modalidad deportiva de cara al trabajo específico con los entrenadores y padres para el trabajo preventivo de la ansiedad (AU)

This work revisits and updates a classic sport psychology article by Simon and Martens (1979). As in that case, our study compares competitive trait anxiety in different sports and recreational activities grouped by two variables: Collaboration, which distinguishes between individual and collective activities; and Skill, which distinguishes between activities in which common skills are required and those in which perceptual skills are required. 643 athletes and 140 castellers answered the Sport Anxiety Scale-2 and their ratings were compared using analysis of variance considering Collaboration and Skill variables, as well as the interaction between them. Results suggest that athletes participating in activities in which a common skill is required show higher levels of Somatic Anxiety and Worries. Moreover, participants in individual sports rate higher in Concentration Disruption than those in collective sports or recreational activities. An interactive effect of Collaboration and Skill variables was found on the Worries subscale. An additional comparison between athletic and recreational activities was conducted showing that the Somatic Anxiety of the castellers is equivalent to athletes, but concerning Worries and Concentration Disruption, athletes’ ratings were significantly higher (AU)

El apoyo a la autonomía generado por entrenadores, compañeros y padres y su efecto sobre la motivación autodeterminada de deportistas de iniciación / Coaches, peers and parents’ autonomy support and its predictive capacity on young athletes’ self-determined motivation

El objetivo de este estudio fue conocer la influencia relativa de los agentes de socialización en el deporte de iniciación sobre la motivación autodeterminada de los jóvenes deportistas. Utilizamos una metodología transversal y evaluamos, mediante cuestionarios, la capacidad predictiva de la percepción de apoyo a la autonomía generado por entrenadores, compañeros de equipo y padres sobre la regulación autónoma, la regulación controlada y la motivación de 269 deportistas de entre 11 y 17 años, mediante análisis de regresión. Los resultados señalaron que la percepción de apoyo a la autonomía generada por los entrenadores en primer lugar, y en menor medida la de los padres y los compañeros, predecía la regulación autónoma de los deportistas. La percepción de apoyo a la autonomía generado por los entrenadores, a su vez, actuaba como factor protector de la motivación de sus jugadores. La discusión, en la línea del modelo jerárquico de Vallerand, apunta a que en un contexto específico como es el ámbito deportivo, el apoyo a la autonomía de mayor influencia es el de la figura de más autoridad en dicho ámbito, en este caso el entrenador (AU)

The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of youth sports’ socialization agents on athletes’ self-determined motivation. We used a transversal methodology and assessed, via questionnaires, the predictive capacity of coaches, peers and parental autonomy support on autonomous regulation, controlled regulation and motivation of 269 athletes age ranged between 11 and 17 years old, through regression analyses. Results showed that the perception of coaches’ autonomy support in first place, followed by parental and peers’, predicted a more autonomous behavioral regulation. The perception of coaches’ autonomy support also played the role of protective factor for the athletes’ motivation. Our discussion, in line with Vallerand’s hierarchical model, suggests that in a specific context such as sports, the most influent autonomy support would be provided by the most authoritative figure in that given context, specifically coaches for this case (AU)

Retiring from elite sports in Greece and Spain

The main objective of the present study was to compare the athletic retirement of elite Greek and Spanish athletes in terms of (a) pre-conditions of retirement, (b) transitional period, and (c) consequences of the transition. For this purpose, elite athletes from Greece (n = 76) and Spain (n = 57) described in retrospect their experience leaving competitive sports through the Retirement from Sports Survey (Alfermann, Stambulova, & Zemaityte, 2004). Separate oneway ANOVAs and chi-square tests revealed differences and similarities between the transitional processes of athletes from the two countries. More similarities than differences were detected in the retirement of Greek and Spanish athletes. Based on these commonalities, we proposed a Southern European perspective on the topic. According to the present results the main characteristics of this pattern could be the lack of retirement planning, high athletic identity after the sports career, and predominance of relocation in the sports world after retirement (AU)

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Less time, better quality. Shortening questionnaires to assess team environment and goal orientation

When assessing team environments in youth sport, participants often spend substantial time responding to lots of items in questionnaires, causing a lack of efficiency (i.e. time and effort) and a decrease of data quality. The purpose of this work was to create short-forms of the questionnaires PeerMCYSQ, SCQPeer, TEOSQ, and also to analyse the existing short-form of the SCQCoach. In Study 1 we developed the short-forms of the instruments. We shortened the questionnaires by using both theory driven and data-driven criteria. In Study 2, we used also qualitative and quantitative data with the aim of validating the short-forms. Finally, in Study 3 we tested the last version of the short-forms and sought evidences concerning their criterion validity. The results showed evidence that supports the psychometric merit of these short-forms: (a) significantly less missing values were obtained; (b) all the factors obtained alpha values above .70; (c) confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated that the short-forms fitted the hypothesized models well; (d) correlations between variables were coherent with expectations, and (e) structural equation modeling results showed significant paths consistent with previous literature. On average, our participants only spent a third of the time used to complete the original questionnaires (AU)

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