Dispersal history of SARS-CoV-2 in Galicia, Spain.

The dynamics of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) transmission are influenced by a variety of factors, including social restrictions and the emergence of distinct variants. In this study, we delve into the origins and dissemination of the Alpha, Delta, and Omicron-BA.1 variants of concern in Galicia, northwest Spain. For this, we leveraged genomic data collected by the EPICOVIGAL Consortium and from the GISAID database, along with mobility information from other Spanish regions and foreign countries. Our analysis indicates that initial introductions during the Alpha phase were predominantly from other Spanish regions and France. However, as the pandemic progressed, introductions from Portugal and the United States became increasingly significant. The number of detected introductions varied from 96 and 101 for Alpha and Delta to 39 for Omicron-BA.1. Most of these introductions left a low number of descendants (<10), suggesting a limited impact on the evolution of the pandemic in Galicia. Notably, Galicia's major coastal cities emerged as critical hubs for viral transmission, highlighting their role in sustaining and spreading the virus. This research emphasizes the critical role of regional connectivity in the spread of SARS-CoV-2 and offers essential insights for enhancing public health strategies and surveillance measures.

Dispersal history of SARS-CoV-2 in Galicia, Spain.

The dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 transmission are influenced by a variety of factors, including social restrictions and the emergence of distinct variants. In this study, we delve into the origins and dissemination of the Alpha, Delta, and Omicron variants of concern in Galicia, northwest Spain. For this, we leveraged genomic data collected by the EPICOVIGAL Consortium and from the GISAID database, along with mobility information from other Spanish regions and foreign countries. Our analysis indicates that initial introductions during the Alpha phase were predominantly from other Spanish regions and France. However, as the pandemic progressed, introductions from Portugal and the USA became increasingly significant. Notably, Galicia's major coastal cities emerged as critical hubs for viral transmission, highlighting their role in sustaining and spreading the virus. This research emphasizes the critical role of regional connectivity in the spread of SARS-CoV-2 and offers essential insights for enhancing public health strategies and surveillance measures.

The unexpected high prevalence of HBV subgenotype D4 in patients with chronic hepatitis B in Galicia, a northwestern Spanish region, reflects strong links with Latin America.

BACKGROUND: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) comprises 9 genotypes and multiple subgenotypes that depict differences in geographic distribution, clinical outcome and response to antiviral therapy. However, the molecular epidemiology of HBV geno/subgenotypes is globally scarce. In Spain, HBV genotype D seems to be more prevalent in the northwestern regions compared to the rest of the country for unclear reasons. METHODS: HBV genotyping was performed using geno2pheno on a S gene fragment amplified from plasma collected from all chronic hepatitis B individuals attended at one reference hospital in Santiago de Compostela, the Galicia's capital town. Phylogenetic and phylogeographic analyses using a fragment of 345 bp were performed in all viremic specimens. To avoid misleading allocation as consequence of short fragment analysis, several bioinformatic controls were used. RESULTS: A total of 320 individuals with persistent serum HBsAg+ and detectable HBV-DNA were seen between 2000 and 2016 (male 68.4%; median age, 52 years-old; native Spaniards 83.8%). HBV genotype distribution was as follows: A 15.3%; B 1.6%; C 2.5%; D 71.6%; E 3.1%; F 2.2%; G 3.1%; and H 0.6%. HBV genotype D was mostly represented by D4 and D2 subgenotypes (33.4% and 15% of total, respectively). Compared to chronic hepatitis B patients with genotypes B, C, E and G, HBV-D4 carriers tended to be older (54.2% had >50 years-old) and HBeAg-negative (85%). Moreover, 43% were female, 4.7% had cirrhosis, 10.2% hepatitis C and 6.4% HIV coinfection. Phylogenetic analyses could be performed on 82 HBV-D4 specimens; and 79 were confirmed as HBV-D4 using PhyML. Phylogeography using FasTree suggested at least two distinct introductions of HBV-D4 in Galicia, one from the Caribbean and South America, and another from India. CONCLUSIONS: HBV subgenotype D4 is the most prevalent HBV variant in chronic hepatitis B patients living in the northwest of Spain, representing 33.4% (107/320) of all chronic hepatitis B infections. This rate of HBV-D4 is among the highest reported worldwide. Epidemiological and phylogenetic analyses suggest a strong association with historical migrant exchanges with Latin America, and especially with the Caribbean basin.

Temperate Bacteriophages (Prophages) in Pseudomonas aeruginosa Isolates Belonging to the International Cystic Fibrosis Clone (CC274).

Bacteriophages are important in bacterial ecology and evolution. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is the most prevalent bacterial pathogen in chronic bronchopulmonary infection in cystic fibrosis (CF). In this study, we used bioinformatics, microbiological and microscopy techniques to analyze the bacteriophages present in 24 P. aeruginosa isolates belonging to the international CF clone (ST274-CC274). Interestingly, we detected the presence of five members of the Inoviridae family of prophages (Pf1, Pf4, Pf5, Pf6, Pf7), which have previously been observed in P. aeruginosa. In addition, we identified a new filamentous prophage, designated Pf8, in the P. aeruginosa AUS411.500 isolate belonging to the international CF clone. We detected only one prophage, never previously described, from the family Siphoviridiae (with 66 proteins and displaying homology with PHAGE_Pseudo_phi297_NC_016762). This prophage was isolated from the P. aeruginosa AUS531 isolate carrying a new gene which is implicated in the phage infection ability, named Bacteriophage Control Infection (bci). We characterized the role of the Bci protein in bacteriophage infection and in regulating the host Quorum Sensing (QS) system, motility and biofilm and pyocyanin production in the P. aeruginosa isogenic mutant AUS531Δbci isolate. The findings may be relevant for the identification of targets in the development of new strategies to control P. aeruginosa infections, particularly in CF patients.

Sample pooling for SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR screening.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the efficacy of sample pooling compared to the individual analysis for the diagnosis of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) by using different commercial platforms for nucleic acid extraction and amplification. METHODS: A total of 3519 nasopharyngeal samples received at nine Spanish clinical microbiology laboratories were processed individually and in pools (342 pools of ten samples and 11 pools of nine samples) according to the existing methodology in place at each centre. RESULTS: We found that 253 pools (2519 samples) were negative and 99 pools (990 samples) were positive; with 241 positive samples (6.85%), our pooling strategy would have saved 2167 PCR tests. For 29 pools (made out of 290 samples), we found discordant results when compared to their correspondent individual samples, as follows: in 22 of 29 pools (28 samples), minor discordances were found; for seven pools (7 samples), we found major discordances. Sensitivity, specificity and positive and negative predictive values for pooling were 97.10% (95% confidence interval (CI), 94.11-98.82), 100%, 100% and 99.79% (95% CI, 99.56-99.90) respectively; accuracy was 99.80% (95% CI, 99.59-99.92), and the kappa concordant coefficient was 0.984. The dilution of samples in our pooling strategy resulted in a median loss of 2.87 (95% CI, 2.46-3.28) cycle threshold (Ct) for E gene, 3.36 (95% CI, 2.89-3.85) Ct for the RdRP gene and 2.99 (95% CI, 2.56-3.43) Ct for the N gene. CONCLUSIONS: We found a high efficiency of pooling strategies for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) RNA testing across different RNA extraction and amplification platforms, with excellent performance in terms of sensitivity, specificity and positive and negative predictive values.

GEHEP 010 study: Prevalence and distribution of hepatitis B virus genotypes in Spain (2000-2016).

OBJECTIVE: To study the prevalence and distribution of HBV genotypes in Spain for the period 2000-2016. METHODS: Retrospective study recruiting 2559 patients from 17 hospitals. Distribution of HBV genotypes, as well as sex, age, geographical origin, mode of transmission, HDV-, HIV- and/or HCV-coinfection, and treatment were recorded. RESULTS: 1924 chronically HBV native Spanish patients have been recruited. Median age was 54 years (IQR: 41-62), 69.6% male, 6.3% HIV-coinfected, 3.1% were HCV-coinfected, 1.7% HDV-co/superinfected. Genotype distribution was: 55.9% D, 33.5% A, 5.6% F, 0.8% G, and 1.9% other genotypes (E, B, H and C). HBV genotype A was closely associated with male sex, sexual transmission, and HIV-coinfection. In contrast, HBV genotype D was associated with female sex and vertical transmission. Different patterns of genotype distribution and diversity were found between different geographical regions. In addition, HBV epidemiological patterns are evolving in Spain, mainly because of immigration. Finally, similar overall rates of treatment success across all HBV genotypes were found. CONCLUSIONS: We present here the most recent data on molecular epidemiology of HBV in Spain (GEHEP010 Study). This study confirms that the HBV genotype distribution in Spain varies based on age, sex, origin, HIV-coinfection, geographical regions and epidemiological groups.

Genomic analysis of 40 prophages located in the genomes of 16 carbapenemase-producing clinical strains of Klebsiella pneumoniae.

Klebsiella pneumoniae is the clinically most important species within the genus Klebsiella and, as a result of the continuous emergence of multi-drug resistant (MDR) strains, the cause of severe nosocomial infections. The decline in the effectiveness of antibiotic treatments for infections caused by MDR bacteria has generated particular interest in the study of bacteriophages. In this study, we characterized a total of 40 temperate bacteriophages (prophages) with a genome range of 11.454-84.199 kb, predicted from 16 carbapenemase-producing clinical strains of K. pneumoniae belonging to different sequence types, previously identified by multilocus sequence typing. These prophages were grouped into the three families in the order Caudovirales (27 prophages belonging to the family Myoviridae, 10 prophages belonging to the family Siphoviridae and 3 prophages belonging to the family Podoviridae). Genomic comparison of the 40 prophage genomes led to the identification of four prophages isolated from different strains and of genome sizes of around 33.3, 36.1, 39.6 and 42.6 kb. These prophages showed sequence similarities (query cover >90 %, identity >99.9 %) with international Microbe Versus Phage (MVP) (http://mvp.medgenius.info/home) clusters 4762, 4901, 3499 and 4280, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis revealed the evolutionary proximity among the members of the four groups of the most frequently identified prophages in the bacterial genomes studied (33.3, 36.1, 39.6 and 42.6 kb), with bootstrap values of 100 %. This allowed the prophages to be classified into three clusters: A, B and C. Interestingly, these temperate bacteriophages did not infect the highest number of strains as indicated by a host-range assay, these results could be explained by the development of superinfection exclusion mechanisms. In addition, bioinformatic analysis of the 40 identified prophages revealed the presence of 2363 proteins. In total, 59.7 % of the proteins identified had a predicted function, mainly involving viral structure, transcription, replication and regulation (lysogenic/lysis). Interestingly, some proteins had putative functions associated with bacterial virulence (toxin expression and efflux pump regulators), phage defence profiles such as toxin-antitoxin modules, an anti-CRISPR/Cas9 protein, TerB protein (from terZABCDE operon) and methyltransferase proteins.

Colonisation of the male reproductive tract in asymptomatic infertile men: Effects on semen quality.

The objective was to explore presence/detection of microorganisms in the male reproductive tract (PMMRT) in asymptomatic patients undergoing infertility treatment and their effects on semen quality in our region. This study enrolled 205 men (mean age, 35.9 years) in a single-centre, tertiary university hospital from December 2015 to December 2016. We used the modified Meares-Stamey test, real-time polymerase chain reaction (rt-PCR) and the National Institutes of Health Chronic Prostatitis Sympton Index (NHI-CPSI) questionnaire to address this issue. No patient met the prostatitis criteria by the modified Meares-Stamey 4-sample test, 33 (16.1%) were positive for rt-PCR in the first-voided urine for any of the Mycoplasma (Ureaplasma urealyticum/parvum, Mycoplasma hominis/genitalium) and C. trachomatis was detected in two cases (1%), and three for rt-PCR in semen for HPV high-risk genotypes non-16/18 (1.5%). Significant statistical differences were reported among patients with and without PMMRT in terms of lower rate of progressive spermatozoa (PR) (p < .034), total motile sperm count (p < .028), normal morphologic forms, especially in the sperm head (p < .001) and highest viscosity (p < .012). It was concluded that PMMRT, specially Mycoplasmas, in asymptomatic infertility men, affects semen quality. The NIH-CPSI questionnaire was not a valid initial screening to subsequently evaluate the presence of prostatitis/PMMRT.

In vitro and in vivo efficacy of combinations of colistin and different endolysins against clinical strains of multi-drug resistant pathogens.

The emergence of multidrug resistant (MDR) pathogenic bacteria is jeopardizing the value of antimicrobials, which had previously changed the course of medical science. In this study, we identified endolysins ElyA1 and ElyA2 (GH108-PG3 family), present in the genome of bacteriophages Ab1051Φ and Ab1052Φ, respectively. The muralytic activity of these endolysins against MDR clinical isolates (Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae) was tested using the turbidity reduction assay. Minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of endolysin, colistin and a combination of endolysin and colistin were determined, and the antimicrobial activity of each treatment was confirmed by time kill curves. Endolysin ElyA1 displayed activity against all 25 strains of A. baumannii and P. aeruginosa tested and against 13 out of 17 strains of K. pneumoniae. Endolysin ElyA2 did not display any such activity. The combined antimicrobial activity of colistin and ElyA1 yielded a reduction in the colistin MIC for all strains studied, except K. pneumoniae. These results were confirmed in vivo in G. mellonella survival assays and in murine skin and lung infection models. In conclusion, combining colistin (1/4 MIC) with the new endolysin ElyA1 (350 µg) enhanced the bactericidal activity of colistin in both in vitro and in vivo studies. This will potentially enable reduction of the dose of colistin used in clinical practice.

Combined Use of the Ab105-2φΔCI Lytic Mutant Phage and Different Antibiotics in Clinical Isolates of Multi-Resistant Acinetobacter baumannii.

Phage therapy is an abandoned antimicrobial therapy that has been resumed in recent years. In this study, we mutated a lysogenic phage from Acinetobacter baumannii into a lytic phage (Ab105-2phiΔCI) that displayed antimicrobial activity against A. baumannii clinical strain Ab177_GEIH-2000 (isolated in the GEIH-REIPI Spanish Multicenter A. baumannii Study II 2000/2010, Umbrella Genbank Bioproject PRJNA422585, and for which meropenem and imipenem MICs of respectively, 32 µg/mL, and 16 µg/mL were obtained). We observed an in vitro synergistic antimicrobial effect (reduction of 4 log-7 log CFU/mL) between meropenem and the lytic phage in all combinations analyzed (Ab105-2phiΔCI mutant at 0.1, 1 and 10 MOI and meropenem at 1/4 and 1/8 MIC). Moreover, bacterial growth was reduced by 8 log CFU/mL for the combination of imipenem at 1/4 MIC plus lytic phage (Ab105-2phiΔCI mutant) and by 4 log CFU/mL for the combination of imipenem at 1/8 MIC plus lytic phage (Ab105-2phiΔCI mutant) at both MOI 1 and 10. These results were confirmed in an in vivo model (G. mellonella), and the combination of imipenem and mutant Ab105-2phiΔCI was most effective (p < 0.05). This approach could help to reduce the emergence of phage resistant bacteria and restore sensitivity to antibiotics used to combat multi-resistant strains of Acinetobacter baumannii.

Prevalence of genital Mycoplasma and response to eradication treatment in patients undergoing assisted reproductive techniques / Prevalencia de micoplasmas genitales y respuesta al tratamiento de descolonización en pacientes de reproducción humana asistida

INTRODUCTION: Several studies have reported greater success of fertilisation by ART in couples who were not infected by Ureaplasma. Increased semen quality and better results have also been observed in couples who were treated with antibiotics to eradicate the infection. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of genital mycoplasmas in urine samples from male partners enrolled in the Assisted Reproduction Program (ARP) in our healthcare area so that, positive cases can be treated prior to the use of ART in order to increase the quality of semen, improve the embryo implantation rates and minimize the risk of adverse effects during pregnancy. MATERIAL AND METHODS: This study included couples enrolled in the ARP during 2016. Mycoplasma detection was made using real-time PCR. In positive cases, both members of the couple were treated with antibiotics until eradication of the microorganism. The antibiotics used were: azithromycin, doxycycline, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, and clindamycin. RESULTS: Of the 205 men studied, 33 were positive: Ureaplasma urealyticum 15.1%, Mycoplasma hominis 3.9%. Eradication treatment with azithromycin failed in 50% compared to 10.2% for doxycycline. Of the 5 cases treated with levofloxacin, only 2 achieved elimination of U. urealyticum. CONCLUSIONS: We consider that genital mycoplasma routine screening could be useful in order to increase the quality of semen which could simplify the in vitro fertilisation procedures and raise the success rate of embryo implantation and pregnancy, especially when fast, sensitive and specific technics as real time PCR are used

INTRODUCCIÓN: Se han publicado estudios que demuestran mayores tasas de éxito en las técnicas reproducción asistida (TRA) en parejas no infectadas por micoplasmas. El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar la prevalencia de los micoplasmas genitales en muestras de orina del miembro masculino de las parejas incluidas en el Programa de Reproducción Asistida en nuestro Área Sanitaria realizando un tratamiento descolonizador con el fin de incrementar la calidad del semen, mejorar las tasas éxito de la embriotransferencia y minimizar los efectos adversos sobre la gestación. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Participaron parejas incluidas en el Programa de Reproducción Asistida durante 2016. La detección de los micoplasmas se realizó por PCR en tiempo real. En los casos positivos, la pareja fue tratada con antibióticos hasta la erradicación del microorganismo. Los antibióticos usados fueron: azitromicina, doxiciclina, levofloxacino, moxifloxacino y clindamicina. RESULTADOS: De los 205 hombres estudiados, 33 fueron positivos: Ureaplasma urealyticum 15,1%, Mycoplasma hominis 3,9%. Azitromicina fracasó en el 50% de los casos y doxiciclina en el 10,2%. Con levofloxacino solo en 2 de 5 se consiguió la erradicación de U. urealyticum. CONCLUSIONES: El cribado de rutina de los micoplasmas genitales puede ser útil para mejorar la calidad del semen. Esto permitiría simplificar los procedimientos de fertilización in vitro e incrementar las tasas de éxito en la implantación de los embriones y en la gestación, especialmente con la aplicación de técnicas diagnósticas rápidas y específicas como la PCR en tiempo real

Quorum and Light Signals Modulate Acetoin/Butanediol Catabolism in Acinetobacter spp.

Acinetobacter spp. are found in all environments on Earth due to their extraordinary capacity to survive in the presence of physical and chemical stressors. In this study, we analyzed global gene expression in airborne Acinetobacter sp. strain 5-2Ac02 isolated from hospital environment in response to quorum network modulators and found that they induced the expression of genes of the acetoin/butanediol catabolism, volatile compounds shown to mediate interkingdom interactions. Interestingly, the acoN gene, annotated as a putative transcriptional regulator, was truncated in the downstream regulatory region of the induced acetoin/butanediol cluster in Acinetobacter sp. strain 5-2Ac02, and its functioning as a negative regulator of this cluster integrating quorum signals was confirmed in Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC 17978. Moreover, we show that the acetoin catabolism is also induced by light and provide insights into the light transduction mechanism by showing that the photoreceptor BlsA interacts with and antagonizes the functioning of AcoN in A. baumannii, integrating also a temperature signal. The data support a model in which BlsA interacts with and likely sequesters AcoN at this condition, relieving acetoin catabolic genes from repression, and leading to better growth under blue light. This photoregulation depends on temperature, occurring at 23°C but not at 30°C. BlsA is thus a dual regulator, modulating different transcriptional regulators in the dark but also under blue light, representing thus a novel concept. The overall data show that quorum modulators as well as light regulate the acetoin catabolic cluster, providing a better understanding of environmental as well as clinical bacteria.

Multiplex Real-Time PCR-shortTUB Assay for Detection of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex in Smear-Negative Clinical Samples with Low Mycobacterial Loads.

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major health problem worldwide. Control of TB requires rapid, accurate diagnosis of active disease. However, extrapulmonary TB is very difficult to diagnose because the clinical specimens have very low bacterial loads. Several molecular methods involving direct detection of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) have emerged in recent years. Real-time PCR amplification simultaneously combines the amplification and detection of candidate sequences by using fluorescent probes (mainly TaqMan or Molecular Beacons) in automated systems. The multiplex real-time PCR-short assay is performed using locked nucleic acid (LNA) probes (length, 8 to 9 nucleotides) in combination with CodUNG to detect multiple pathogens in clinical samples. In this study, we evaluated the performance of this novel multiplex assay for detecting the MTBC in comparison with that of the conventional culture-based method. The multiplex real-time PCR-shortTUB assay targets two genes, whiB3 (redox-responsive transcriptional regulator) and pstS1 (phosphate-specific transporter), yielding limits of detection (LOD) of 10 copies and 100 copies, respectively, and amplification efficiencies of 92% and 99.7%, respectively. A total of 94 extrapulmonary samples and pulmonary samples with low mycobacterial loads (all smear negative; 75 MTBC culture positive) were analyzed using the test, yielding an overall sensitivity of 88% and a specificity of 95%. For pleural fluid and tissues/biopsy specimens, the sensitivity was 83% and 85%, respectively. In summary, this technique could be implemented in routine clinical microbiology testing to reduce the overall turnaround time for MTBC detection and may therefore be a useful tool for the diagnosis of extrapulmonary tuberculosis and diagnosis using pulmonary samples with low mycobacterial loads.

Prevalence and incidence of hepatitis delta in patients with chronic hepatitis B in Spain.

BACKGROUND: Hepatitis delta virus (HDV) is a defective agent that only replicates in the presence of the hepatitis B virus. Accordingly, HDV acquisition may occur as superinfection of HBsAg+ carriers or following acute dual HDV and hepatitis B virus exposure. Herein, we examined the global and incident rates of HDV infections in Spain. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The presence of anti-HDV antibody and new HDV superinfections was examined in all HBsAg+ patients who attended one large tertiary outclinic in Spain since year 2000. Anti-HDV antibodies were tested repeatedly every 5 years in those previously negative. RESULTS: During a median follow-up of 12 years, 478 individuals were diagnosed as HBsAg+. Overall, 64.4% were male, median age was 55 years, 88.1% were native Spaniards, 6.5% were coinfected with HIV, and 7.3% were reactive for hepatitis C virus (HCV) antibodies.A total of 19 (4%) patients had anti-HDV antibody at first diagnosis. There were no further HDV seroconversions. Most anti-HDV+ patients were male (n=12), former injection drug users (n=13), and native Spaniards (n=16). Coinfection with HIV was found in six, and 12 had HCV antibodies. Interestingly, three of seven women with delta hepatitis were foreigners (Asian or African), denied injection drug use, were younger than 40 years old, and negative for both HCV and HIV. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of chronic hepatitis delta is currently very low (<5%) among chronic HBsAg+ carriers in Spain, with lower rates in recent years. Moreover, new incident HDV infections were not seen in 478 chronic hepatitis B carriers since year 2000, following drastic declines in injection drug use.

Decline and changing profile of hepatitis delta among injection drug users in Spain.

BACKGROUND: Roughly 15 million people worldwide have hepatitis delta, the most severe form of chronic viral hepatitis that often leads to cirrhosis and liver cancer. Injection drug users (IDUs) are the largest HDV reservoir. Their resurgence in North America and Europe may represent a new opportunity for HDV to spread more widely. METHODS: We examined all consecutive active IDUs seen for the first time and enrolled in detoxification programmes at two clinics in Spain during two periods (1993-1996 and 2011-2014, respectively). Serum markers of HIV, HBV and HDV infection were tested. RESULTS: A total of 209 IDUs were examined in the first period. Mean age was 27-years-old. All had markers of past or current HBV infection. The rate of HIV-antibody (Ab), hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) and HDV-Ab was as follows: 122 (58.4%), 73 (34.9%) and 62 (29.7%), respectively. Serum HDV-Ab was recognized in 53.4% of HBsAg+ and 16.9% of HBsAg- patients (P<0.001). Positivity for HDV-Ab was associated with HIV regardless HBsAg status. In the second period we tested 47 active IDUs. Anti-HDV was found in only two (4.2%), both immigrants from HDV endemic countries and with HBsAg+. CONCLUSIONS: Acute HBV-HDV coinfections and self-limited HDV infections were frequent in the 1990s among IDUs in Spain, especially in HIV+ individuals. In contrast, circulation of HDV has dramatically declined among active IDUs in Spain and is currently very rare, being concentrated in foreign immigrants. It may reflect the benefit of universal HBV vaccination as well as the success of needle exchange programmes in Spain.

Coinfección pulmonar por Nocardia cyriacigeorgica y Aspergillus fumigatus / Pulmonary co-infection due to Nocardia cyriacigeorgica and Aspergillus fumigatus

Introducción. La nocardiosis pulmonar es una infección poco frecuente causada por bacterias grampositivas aerobias del género Nocardia. Nocardia sp. son microorganismos ambientales de distribución ubicua. Se han descrito unas 50 especies de Nocardia y 30 de ellas se sabe que causan infección en seres humanos. Nocardia cyriacigeorgica se describe por primera vez en 2001. Caso clínico. Presentamos un caso de infección por N. cyriacigeorgica en paciente con historia de linfoma no Hodgkin de células B y diabetes mellitus. Los hallazgos microbiológicos reflejan una posible coinfección por N. cyriacigeorgica y Aspergillus fumigatus. Conclusiones. Los datos de factores de riesgo y antecedentes son fundamentales para detectar el crecimiento de Nocardia sp. en el laboratorio. Por otra parte, el diagnóstico de la aspergilosis pulmonar invasiva es particularmente controvertida, especialmente en los paciente de unidades de cuidados intensivos. Teniendo todo en cuenta, presentamos un caso de una posible coinfección por N. cyriacigeorgica and A. fumigatus en un paciente crítico (AU)

Introduction. Pulmonary nocardiosis is an uncommon pulmonary infection caused by aerobic gram-positive bacteria of the genus Nocardia. Nocardia sp. are environmental organisms spread worldwide. Approximately 50 Nocardia species have been described to date, about 30 of which are known to cause human disease. Nocardia cyriacigeorgica was first reported in 2001. Case report. We report a case of infection caused by N. cyriacigeorgica in a patient with B-cells non-Hodgkin lymphoma and diabetes mellitus. The microbiological findings reflect a possible co-infection by N. cyriacigeorgica and Aspergillus fumigatus. Conclusions. Patient’s background and information related to risk factors are essential to detect the growth of Nocardia sp. in the laboratory. Furthermore, diagnosis of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis is particularly controversial, especially in intensive care units patients. Taking everything into account, we will discuss a possible co-infection by N. cyriacigeorgica and A. fumigatus in a critically ill patient (AU)