The perception of air pollution and its health risk: a scoping review of measures and methods.

BACKGROUND: Although there is increasing awareness of the health risks of air pollution as a global issue, few studies have focused on the methods for assessing individuals' perceptions of these risks. This scoping review aimed to identify previous research evaluating individuals' perceptions of air pollution and its health effects, and to explore the measurement of perceptions, as a key resource for health behaviour. METHODS: The review followed the methodological framework proposed by Arksey and O'Malley. PubMed and Web of Science were searched. After initial and full-text screening, we further selected studies with standardised scales that had previously been tested for reliability and validity in assessing awareness and perceptions. RESULTS: After full-text screening, 95 studies were identified. 'Perception/awareness of air quality' was often measured, as well as 'Perception of health risk.' Only nine studies (9.5%) used validated scaled questionnaires. There was considerable variation in the scales used to measure the multiple dimensions of risk perception for air pollution. CONCLUSION: Few studies used structured scales to quantify individuals' perceptions, limiting comparisons among studies. Standardised methods for measuring health risk perception are needed.

Main findings: Among 95 studies assessing health risk perception of air pollution, only nine studies used standardised scales.Added knowledge: There was considerable variation in the scales measuring the multiple dimensions of risk perception for air pollution, which makes comparison among the studies difficult.Global health impact for policy and action: This review highlights the need for the development of globally standardised scale to measure the health risk perception of air pollution.

Effects of Coexposure to Air Pollution from Vegetation Fires and Extreme Heat on Mortality in Upper Northern Thailand.

Background: understanding the effects of coexposure to compound extreme events, such as air pollution and extreme heat, is important for reducing current and future health burdens. This study investigated the independent and synergistic effects of exposure to air pollution from vegetation fires and extreme heat on all-cause mortality in Upper Northern Thailand. Methods: we used a time-stratified case-crossover study design with a conditional quasi-Poisson model to examine the association between mortality and coexposure to air pollution due to vegetation fire events (fire-PM2.5) and extreme heat. Extreme heat days were defined using the 90th and 99th percentile thresholds for daily maximum temperature. Results: we observed a significant positive excess risk of mortality due to independent exposure to fire-PM2.5 and extreme heat, but not an interactive effect. All-cause mortality risk increased by 0.9% (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.1, 1.8) for each 10 µg/m3 increase in fire-PM2.5 on the same day and by 12.8% (95% CI: 10.5, 15.1) on extreme heat days (90th percentile) relative to nonextreme heat days. Conclusion: this study showed that exposure to PM2.5 from vegetation fires and extreme heat independently increased all-cause mortality risk in UNT. However, there was no evidence of a synergistic effect of these events.

Interplay of Climate Change and Air Pollution- Projection of the under-5 mortality attributable to ambient particulate matter (PM2.5) in South Asia.

Ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) pollution is a leading health risk factor for children under- 5 years, especially in developing countries. South Asia is a PM2.5 hotspot, where climate change, a potential factor affecting PM2.5 pollution, adds a major challenge. However, limited evidence is available on under-5 mortality attributable to PM2.5 under different climate change scenarios. This study aimed to project under-5 mortality attributable to long-term exposure to ambient PM2.5 under seven air pollution and climate change mitigation scenarios in South Asia. We used a concentration-risk function obtained from a previous review to project under-5 mortality attributable to ambient PM2.5. With a theoretical minimum risk exposure level of 2.4 µg/m3, this risk function was linked to gridded annual PM2.5 concentrations from atmospheric modeling to project under-5 mortality from 2010 to 2049 under different climate change mitigation scenarios. The scenarios were developed from the Aim/Endues global model based on end-of-pipe (removing the emission of air pollutants at the source, EoP) and 2 °C target measures. Our results showed that, in 2010-2014, about 306.8 thousand under-5 deaths attributable to PM2.5 occurred in South Asia under the Reference (business as usual) scenario. The number of deaths was projected to increase in 2045-2049 by 36.6% under the same scenario and 7.7% under the scenario where EoP measures would be partially implemented by developing countries (EoPmid), and was projected to decrease under other scenarios, with the most significant decrease (81.2%) under the scenario where EoP measures would be fully enhanced by all countries along with the measures to achieve 2 °C target (EoPmaxCCSBLD) across South Asia. Country-specific projections of under-5 mortality varied by country. The current emission control strategy would not be sufficient to reduce the number of deaths in South Asia. Robust climate change mitigation and air pollution control policy implementation is required.

A Nationwide Comparative Analysis of Temperature-Related Mortality and Morbidity in Japan.

BACKGROUND: The impact of temperature on morbidity remains largely unknown. Moreover, extensive evidence indicates contrasting patterns between temperature-mortality and temperature-morbidity associations. A nationwide comparison of the impact of temperature on mortality and morbidity in more specific subgroups is necessary to strengthen understanding and help explore underlying mechanisms by identifying susceptible populations. OBJECTIVE: We performed this study to quantify and compare the impact of temperature on mortality and morbidity in 47 prefectures in Japan. METHODS: We applied a two-stage time-series design with distributed lag nonlinear models and mixed-effect multivariate meta-analysis to assess the association of temperature with mortality and morbidity by causes (all-cause, circulatory, and respiratory) at prefecture and country levels between 2015 and 2019. Subgroup analysis was conducted by sex, age, and regions. RESULTS: The patterns and magnitudes of temperature impacts on morbidity and mortality differed. For all-cause outcomes, cold exhibited larger effects on mortality, and heat showed larger effects on morbidity. At specific temperature percentiles, cold (first percentile) was associated with a higher relative risk (RR) of mortality [1.45; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.39, 1.52] than morbidity (1.33; 95% CI: 1.26, 1.40), as compared to the minimum mortality/morbidity temperature. Heat (99th percentile) was associated with a higher risk of morbidity (1.30; 95% CI: 1.28, 1.33) than mortality (1.04; 95% CI: 1.02, 1.06). For cause-specific diseases, mortality due to circulatory diseases was more susceptible to heat and cold than morbidity. However, for respiratory diseases, both cold and heat showed higher risks for morbidity than mortality. Subgroup analyses suggested varied associations depending on specific outcomes. DISCUSSION: Distinct patterns were observed for the association of temperature with mortality and morbidity, underlying different mechanisms of temperature on different end points, and the differences in population susceptibility are possible explanations. Future mitigation policies and preventive measures against nonoptimal temperatures should be specific to disease outcomes and targeted at susceptible populations. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP12854.

Enhancing health resilience in Japan in a changing climate.

Climate change poses significant threats to human health, propelling Japan to take decisive action through the Climate Change Adaptation Act of 2018. This Act has led to the implementation of climate change adaptation policies across various sectors, including healthcare. In this review, we synthesized existing scientific evidence on the impacts of climate change on health in Japan and outlined the adaptation strategies and measures implemented by the central and local governments. The country has prioritized tackling heat-related illness and mortality and undertaken various adaptation measures to mitigate these risks. However, it faces unique challenges due to its super-aged society. Ensuring effective and coordinated strategies to address the growing uncertainties in vulnerability to climate change and the complex intersectoral impacts of disasters remains a critical issue. To combat the additional health risks by climate change, a comprehensive approach embracing adaptation and mitigation policies in the health sector is crucial. Encouraging intersectoral communication and collaboration will be vital for developing coherent and effective strategies to safeguard public health in the face of climate change.

Economic burden of cancer attributable to modifiable risk factors in Japan.

Controlling avoidable causes of cancer may save cancer-related healthcare costs and indirect costs of premature deaths and productivity loss. This study aimed to estimate the economic burden of cancer attributable to major lifestyle and environmental risk factors in Japan in 2015. We evaluated the economic cost of cancer attributable to modifiable risk factors from a societal perspective. We obtained the direct medical costs for 2015 from the National Database of Health Insurance Claims and Specific Health Checkups of Japan, and estimated the indirect costs of premature mortality and of morbidity due to cancer using the relevant national surveys in Japan. Finally, we estimated the economic cost of cancer associated with lifestyle and environmental risk factors. The estimated cost of cancer attributable to lifestyle and environmental factors was 1,024,006 million Japanese yen (¥) (8,460 million US dollars [$]) for both sexes, and ¥673,780 million ($5,566 million) in men and ¥350,226 million ($2,893 million) in women, using the average exchange rate in 2015 ($1 = ¥121.044). A total of ¥285,150 million ($2,356 million) was lost due to premature death in Japan in 2015. Indirect morbidity costs that could have been prevented were estimated to be ¥200,602 million ($1,657 million). Productivity loss was highest for stomach cancer in men (¥28,735 million/$237 million) and cervical cancer in women (¥24,448 million/$202 million). Preventing and controlling cancers caused by infections including Helicobacter pylori, human papillomavirus and tobacco smoking will not only be life-saving but may also be cost-saving in the long run.

Associations between residential greenness and air pollution and the incident metabolic syndrome in a Thai worker cohort.

Increasing air pollution and decreasing exposure to greenness may contribute to the metabolic syndrome (MetS). We examined associations between long-term exposure to residential greenness and air pollution and MetS incidence in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region, Thailand. Data from 1369 employees (aged 52-71 years) from the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand cohort from 2002 to 2017 were analyzed. The greenness level within 500 m of each participant's residence was measured using the satellite-derived Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI). The kriging approach was used to generate the average concentration of each air pollutant (PM10, CO, SO2, NO2, and O3) at the sub-district level. The average long-term exposure to air pollution and greenness for each participant was calculated over the same period of person-time. Cox proportional hazards models were used to analyze the greenness-air pollution-MetS associations. The adjusted hazard ratio of MetS was 1.42 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.32, 1.53), 1.22 (95% CI: 1.15, 1.30), and 2.0 (95% CI: 1.82, 2.20), per interquartile range increase in PM10 (9.5 µg/m3), SO2 (0.9 ppb), and CO (0.3 ppm), respectively. We found no clear association between NDVI or EVI and the incidence of MetS. On the contrary, the incident MetS was positively associated with NDVI and EVI for participants exposed to PM10 at concentrations more than 50 µg/m3. In summary, the incidence of MetS was positively associated with long-term exposure to air pollution. In areas with high levels of air pollution, green spaces may not benefit health outcomes.

Differential Pattern of Cell Death and ROS Production in Human Airway Epithelial Cells Exposed to Quinones Combined with Heated-PM2.5 and/or Asian Sand Dust.

The combined toxicological effects of airborne particulate matter (PM), such as PM2.5, and Asian sand dust (ASD), with surrounding chemicals, particularly quinones, on human airway epithelial cells remain underexplored. In this study, we established an in vitro combination exposure model using 1,2-naphthoquinones (NQ) and 9,10-phenanthroquinones (PQ) along with heated PM (h-PM2.5 and h-ASD) to investigate their potential synergistic effects. The impacts of quinones and heated PM on tetrazolium dye (WST-1) reduction, cell death, and cytokine and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production were examined. Results revealed that exposure to 9,10-PQ with h-PM2.5 and/or h-ASD dose-dependently increased WST-1 reduction at 1 µM compared to the corresponding control while markedly decreasing it at 10 µM. Higher early apoptotic, late apoptotic, or necrotic cell numbers were detected in 9,10-PQ + h-PM2.5 exposure than in 9,10-PQ + h-ASD or 9,10-PQ + h-PM2.5 + h-ASD. Additionally, 1,2-NQ + h-PM2.5 exposure also resulted in an increase in cell death compared to 1,2-NQ + h-ASD and 1,2-NQ + h-PM2.5 + h-ASD. Quinones with or without h-PM2.5, h-ASD, or h-PM2.5 + h-ASD significantly increased ROS production, especially with h-PM2.5. Our findings suggest that quinones, at relatively low concentrations, induce cell death synergistically in the presence of h-PM2.5 rather than h-ASD and h-PM2.5 + h-ASD, partially through the induction of apoptosis with increased ROS generation.

Association between extreme rainfall and acute respiratory infection among children under-5 years in sub-Saharan Africa: an analysis of Demographic and Health Survey data, 2006-2020.

OBJECTIVE: Despite an increase in the number of studies examining the association between extreme weather events and infectious diseases, evidence on respiratory infection remains scarce. This study examined the association between extreme rainfall and acute respiratory infection (ARI) in children aged <5 years in sub-Saharan Africa. SETTING: Study data were taken from recent (2006-2020) Demographic and Health Survey data sets from 33 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. PARTICIPANTS: 280 157 children aged below 5 years were included. OUTCOME MEASURES: The proportions of ARI according to individual, household and geographical characteristics were compared using the χ2 test. The association between extreme rainfall (≥90th percentile) and ARI was examined using multivariate logistic regression for 10 of 33 countries with an adequate sample size of ARI and extreme rainfall events. The model was adjusted for temperature, comorbidity and sociodemographic factors as covariates. Stratification analyses by climate zone were also performed. RESULTS: The prevalence of ARI in children aged <5 years ranged from 1.0% to 9.1% across sub-Saharan Africa. By country, no significant association was observed between extreme rainfall and ARI, except in Nigeria (OR: 2.14, 95% CI 1.06 to 4.31). Larger effect estimates were observed in the tropical zone (OR: 1.13, 95% CI 0.69 to 1.84) than in the arid zone (OR: 0.72, 95% CI 0.17 to 2.95), although the difference was not statistically significant. CONCLUSION: We found no association between extreme rainfall and ARI in sub-Saharan Africa. Effect estimates tended to be larger in the tropical zone where intense rainfall events regularly occur. Comprehensive studies to investigate subsequent extreme climate events, such as flooding, are warranted in the future.

Child Abuse Consultation Rates Before vs During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Japan.

This cross-sectional study examines the association between the first 2 years of the COVID-19 pandemic and child abuse consultations in 47 Japanese prefectures.

Residential greenness and kidney function: A cohort study of Thai employees.

Higher residential greenness is associated with a lower risk of chronic kidney disease, but evidence on the association between greenness exposure and kidney function has not been conducted. Using cohort data from Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT) employees, we investigated the association between long-term exposure to greenness and kidney function using estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) in Bangkok Metropolitan Region (BMR), Thailand. We analyzed data from 2022 EGAT workers (aged 25-55 years at baseline) from 2009 to 2019. The level of greenness was calculated using the satellite-derived Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). From 2008 to 2019, the average concentration of each air pollutant (PM10, O3, NO2, SO2, and CO) at the sub-district level in BMR was generated using the Kriging method. Long-term exposure for each participant was defined as the 1-year average concentrations before the date of the physical examination in 2009, 2014, and 2019. We employed linear mixed effects models to evaluate associations of NDVI and EVI with eGFR. The robustness of the results was also tested by including air pollutants in the models. After relevant confounders were controlled, the interquartile range increase in NDVI was associated with higher eGFR [1.03% (95%CI: 0.33, 1.74)]. After PM10 and SO2 were included in the models, the associations between NDVI and eGFR became weaker. The additions of O3, NO2, and CO strengthened the associations between them. In contrast, we did not find any association between EVI and eGFR. In conclusion, there was a positive association between NDVI and eGFR, but not for EVI. Air pollutants had a significant impact on the relationship between NDVI and eGFR. Additional research is needed to duplicate this result in various settings and populations to confirm our findings.

Association between Long-Term Ambient PM2.5 Exposure and under-5 Mortality: A Scoping Review.

Studies have established a link between exposure to fine particles (PM2.5) and mortality in infants and children. However, few studies have explored the association between post-birth exposure to PM2.5 and under-5 mortality. We conducted a scoping review to identify relevant epidemiological evidence on the association between post-birth ambient PM2.5 exposure and under-5 mortality. We searched PubMed and Web of Science for articles published between 1970 and the end of January 2022 that explicitly linked ambient PM2.5 and under-5 mortality by considering the study area, study design, exposure window, and child age. Information was extracted on the study characteristics, exposure assessment and duration, outcomes, and effect estimates/findings. Ultimately, 13 studies on infant and child mortality were selected. Only four studies measured the effect of post-birth exposure to PM2.5 on under-5 mortality. Only one cohort study mentioned a positive association between post-birth ambient PM2.5 exposure and under-5 mortality. The results of this scoping review highlight the need for extensive research in this field, given that long-term exposure to ambient PM2.5 is a major global health risk and child mortality remains high in some countries.

Association between greenness and cardiovascular risk factors: Results from a large cohort study in Thailand.

BACKGROUND: The risk of cardiovascular diseases may be reduced by residing in green environments. However, there are relatively few longitudinal cohort studies, especially in Southeast Asia, that focused on the health benefits of long-term greenness exposure in young adults. The present study examined the association between long-term exposure to residential greenness and self-reported morbidities in participants of the Thai Cohort Study (TCS) in Thailand from 2005 to 2013. METHODS: The self-reported outcomes, including high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, and diabetes, were reported in 2005, 2009, and 2013, where the study participants provided the exact year of disease occurrence. Greenness was assessed by the satellite-based Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), with a spatial resolution of 250 m. Long-term exposure to NDVI and EVI of each participant's sub-district was averaged over the period of person-time. We used Cox proportional hazards models to examine the association between greenness and health outcomes. Associations with self-reported morbidity were measured using hazard ratios (HRs) per interquartile range (IQR) increase in NDVI and EVI. RESULTS: After adjusting for potential confounders, we observed that an IQR increase in NDVI was associated with lower incidence of high blood pressure (HR = 0.92, 95% CI: 0.89, 0.97) and high blood cholesterol (HR = 0.89, 95%CI: 0.87, 0.92), but not significantly associated with diabetes (HR = 0.93, 95%CI: 0.85, 1.01). EVI was also inversely associated with self-reported high blood pressure (HR = 0.92, 95%CI: 0.88, 0.96), high blood cholesterol (HR = 0.89, 95%CI: 0.87, 0.91), and diabetes (HR = 0.92, 95%CI: 0.85, 0.99). CONCLUSIONS: Long-term exposure to residential greenness was inversely associated with self-reported high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, and diabetes in participants of TCS. Our study provides evidence that greenness exposure may reduce cardiovascular disease risk factors in adult population.

Daily temperature effects on under-five mortality in a tropical climate country and the role of local characteristics.

BACKGROUND: Climate change and its subsequent effects on temperature have raised global public health concerns. Although numerous epidemiological studies have shown the adverse health effects of temperature, the association remains unclear for children aged below five years old and those in tropical climate regions. METHODS: We conducted a two-stage time-stratified case-crossover study to examine the association between temperature and under-five mortality, spanning the period from 2014 to 2018 across all six regions in Malaysia. In the first stage, we estimated region-specific temperature-mortality associations using a conditional Poisson regression and distributed lag nonlinear models. We used a multivariate meta-regression model to pool the region-specific estimates and examine the potential role of local characteristics in the association, which includes geographical information, demographics, socioeconomic status, long-term temperature metrics, and healthcare access by region. RESULTS: Temperature in Malaysia ranged from 22 °C to 31 °C, with a mean of 27.6 °C. No clear seasonality was observed in under-five mortality. We found no strong evidence of the association between temperature and under-five mortality, with an "M-" shaped exposure-response curve. The minimum mortality temperature (MMT) was identified at 27.1 °C. Among several local characteristics, only education level and hospital bed rates reduced the residual heterogeneity in the association. However, effect modification by these variables were not significant. CONCLUSION: This study suggests a null association between temperature and under-five mortality in Malaysia, which has a tropical climate. The "M-" shaped pattern suggests that under-fives may be vulnerable to temperature changes, even with a small temperature change in reference to the MMT. However, the weak risks with a large uncertainty at extreme temperatures remained inconclusive. Potential roles of education level and hospital bed rate were statistically inconclusive.

Effect modification by temperature on the association between O3 and emergency ambulance dispatches in Japan: A multi-city study.

Numerous epidemiological studies have reported that ozone (O3) and temperature are independently associated with health outcomes, but modification of the effects of O3 on health outcomes by temperature, and vice versa, has not been fully described. This study aimed to investigate effect modification by temperature on the association between O3 and emergency ambulance dispatches (EADs) in Japan. Data on daily air pollutants, ambient temperature, and EADs were obtained from eight Japanese cities from 2007 to 2015. A distributed lag non-linear model combined with Poisson regression was performed with temperature as a confounding factor and effect modifier to estimate the effects of O3 on EADs at low (<25th percentile), moderate (25th-75th percentile), and high (>75th percentile) temperature for each city. The estimates obtained from each city were pooled by random-effects meta-analysis. When temperature was entered as a confounder, the estimated effects of O3 on EADs for all acute, cardiovascular, and respiratory illnesses were largest at lag 0 (current-day lag). Therefore, this lag was used to further estimate the effects of O3 on EADs in each temperature category. The estimated effects of O3 on EADs for all acute, cardiovascular, and respiratory illnesses in all eight Japanese cities increased with increasing temperature. Specifically, a 10 ppb increase in O3 was associated with 0.80 % (95 % CI: 0.25 to 1.35), 0.19 % (95 % CI: -0.85 to 1.25), and 1.14 % (95 % CI: -0.01 to 2.31) increases in the risk of EADs for all acute, cardiovascular, and respiratory illnesses, respectively, when city-specific daily temperature exceeded the 75th percentile. Our findings suggest that the association between O3 and EADs for all acute, cardiovascular, and respiratory illnesses is the highest during high temperature. Finding of this study can be used to develop potential mitigation measures against O3 exposure in high temperature environment to reduce its associated adverse health effects.

Role of oxides of nitrogen in the ozone-cardiorespiratory visit association.

Ozone (O3)-induced health effects vary in terms of severity, from deterioration of lung function and hospitalization to death. Several studies have reported a linear increase in health risks after O3 exposure. However, current evidence suggests a non-linear U- and J-shaped concentration-response (C-R) function. The potential increasing risks with decreasing O3 concentrations may seem counterintuitive from the traditional standpoint that decreasing exposure should lead to decreasing health risks. Tus, the question of whether the increasing risks with decreasing concentrations are truly O3-induced or might be from other C-R mechanisms. If these potential risks were not accounted for, this may have contributed to the risks observed at the low ozone concentration range. In this study, we examined the short-term effects of photochemical oxidant (Ox, parts per billiion) on outpatient cardiorespiratory visits in 21 Japanese cities after adjusting for other air pollutant-specific C-R functions. Daily cardiorespiratory visits from January 1, 2014 to December 31, 2016 were obtained from the Japanese Medical Data Center Co. Ltd. Similar period of meteorological and air pollution variables were obtained from relevant data sources. We utilized a time-stratified case crossover design coupled with the generalized additive mixed model (TSCC-GAMM) to estimate the association between Ox and cardiorespiratory outpatient visits, after adjusting for several covariates. A total of 2,588,930 visits were recorded across the study period, with a mean of 111.87 and a standard deviation of 138.75. The results revealed that crude Ox-cardiorespiratory visits exhibited a U-shaped pattern. However, adjustment of the oxides of nitrogen, particularly nitrogen monoxide (NO), attenuated the lower risk curve and subsequently altered the shape of the C-R function, with a substantial reduction observed during winter. NO- and nitrogen dioxide (NO2)-adjusted Ox-cardiorespiratory associations increased nearly linearly, without an apparent threshold. Current evidence suggests the importance of adjusting the oxides of nitrogen in estimating the Ox C-R risk functions.

Long-term trends in mortality risk associated with short-term exposure to air pollution in 10 Japanese cities between 1977 and 2015.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Short-term associations between air pollution and mortality have been well reported in Japan, but the historical changes in mortality risk remain unknown. We examined temporal changes in the mortality risks associated with short-term exposure to four criteria air pollutants in selected Japanese cities. METHODS: We collected daily mortality data for non-accidental causes (n = 5,748,206), cardiovascular (n = 1,938,743) and respiratory diseases (n = 777,266), and air pollutants (sulfur dioxide [SO2], nitrogen dioxide [NO2], suspended particulate matter [SPM], and oxidants [Ox]) in 10 cities from 1977 to 2015. We performed two-stage analysis with 5-year stratification to estimate the relative risk (RR) of mortality per 10-unit increase in the 2-day moving average of air pollutant concentrations. In the first stage, city-specific associations were assessed using a quasi-Poisson generalized linear regression model. In the second stage, city-specific estimates were pooled using a random-effects meta-analysis. Linear trend and ratio of relative risks (RRR) were computed to examine temporal changes. RESULTS: When stratifying the analysis by every 5 years, average concentrations in each sub-period decreased for SO2, NO2, and SPM (14.2-2.3 ppb, 29.4-17.5 ppb, 52.1-20.6 µg/m3, respectively) but increased for Ox (29.1-39.1 ppb) over the study period. We found evidence of a negative linear trend in the risk of cardiovascular mortality associated with SPM across sub-periods. However, the risks of non-accidental and respiratory mortality per 10-unit increase in SPM concentration were significantly higher in the most recent period than in the earliest period. Other gaseous pollutants did not show such temporal risk change. The risks posed by these pollutants were slightly to moderately heterogeneous in the different cities. CONCLUSIONS: The mortality risks associated with short-term exposure to SPM changed, with different trends by cause of death, in 10 cities over 39 years whereas the risks for other gaseous pollutants were relatively stable.

Effects of Streamer Discharge on PM2.5 Containing Endotoxins and Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons and Their Biological Responses In Vitro.

Experimental and epidemiological studies have demonstrated that fine particulate matter with a diameter of <2.5 µm (PM2.5) affects both the respiratory and immune systems. However, effective approaches to reduce PM2.5-induced hazardous effects have not been discovered yet. Streamer discharge is a category of plasma discharge in which high-speed electrons collide with oxygen and nitrogen molecules. Although streamer discharge can reportedly eliminate bacteria, molds, chemical substances, and allergens, its ability to decontaminate PM2.5 has not been previously demonstrated. The present study explored whether streamer discharge treatment could reduce PM2.5-induced inflammatory responses by employing an in vitro system. PM2.5 was collected under four conditions (Bangkok (Sep.−Dec.), Bangkok (Dec.−Mar.), Singapore, and Taipei). Airway epithelial cells and antigen-presenting cells exposed to non-treated PM2.5 in several conditions resulted in inflammatory responses. Streamer-discharged PM2.5 (Bangkok (Sep.−Dec.)) decreased the expression of interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8 compared to non-treated PM2.5. Moreover, composition analysis demonstrated that streamer discharge reduced some compounds, such as endotoxins and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, included in PM2.5 that can elicit inflammatory responses. Streamer discharge treatment can reduce endotoxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and the subsequent inflammatory responses induced by PM2.5 in vitro.

Estimation of hospital visits for respiratory diseases attributable to PM10 from vegetation fire smoke and health impacts of regulatory intervention in Upper Northern Thailand.

The air quality in Upper Northern Thailand (UNT) deteriorates during seasonal vegetation fire events, causing adverse effects especially on respiratory health outcomes. This study aimed to quantitatively estimate respiratory morbidity from vegetation fire smoke exposure, and to assess the impact of a burning ban enforced in 2016 on morbidity burden in UNT. We computed daily population exposure to fire-originated PM10 and estimated its health burden during a 5-year period from 2014 to 2018 using daily fire-originated PM10 concentration and the concentration-response function for short-term exposure to PM10 from vegetation fire smoke and respiratory morbidity. In subgroups classified as children and older adults, the health burden of respiratory morbidity was estimated using specific effect coefficients from previous studies conducted in UNT. Finally, we compared the health burden of respiratory morbidity before and after burning ban enforcement. Approximately 130,000 hospital visits for respiratory diseases were estimated to be attributable to fire-originated PM10 in UNT from 2014 to 2018. This estimation accounted for 1.3% of total hospital visits for respiratory diseases during the 5-year period, and 20% of those during burning events. Age-specific estimates revealed a larger impact of PM10 in the older adult group. The number of hospital visits for respiratory diseases attributable to fire-originated PM10 decreased from 1.8% to 0.5% after the burning ban policy was implemented in the area. Our findings suggest that PM10 released from vegetation fires is a health burden in UNT. The prohibition of the burning using regulatory measure had a positive impact on respiratory morbidity in this area.

A scoping review on the health effects of smoke haze from vegetation and peatland fires in Southeast Asia: Issues with study approaches and interpretation.

Smoke haze due to vegetation and peatland fires in Southeast Asia is a serious public health concern. Several approaches have been applied in previous studies; however, the concepts and interpretations of these approaches are poorly understood. In this scoping review, we addressed issues related to the application of epidemiology (EPI), health burden estimation (HBE), and health risk assessment (HRA) approaches, and discussed the interpretation of findings, and current research gaps. Most studies reported an air quality index exceeding the 'unhealthy' level, especially during smoke haze periods. Although smoke haze is a regional issue in Southeast Asia, studies on its related health effects have only been reported from several countries in the region. Each approach revealed increased health effects in a distinct manner: EPI studies reported excess mortality and morbidity during smoke haze compared to non-smoke haze periods; HBE studies estimated approximately 100,000 deaths attributable to smoke haze in the entire Southeast Asia considering all-cause mortality and all age groups, which ranged from 1,064-260,000 for specified mortality cause, age group, study area, and study period; HRA studies quantified potential lifetime cancer and non-cancer risks due to exposure to smoke-related chemicals. Currently, there is a lack of interconnection between these three approaches. The EPI approach requires extensive effort to investigate lifetime health effects, whereas the HRA approach needs to clarify the assumptions in exposure assessments to estimate lifetime health risks. The HBE approach allows the presentation of health impact in different scenarios, however, the risk functions used are derived from EPI studies from other regions. Two recent studies applied a combination of the EPI and HBE approaches to address uncertainty issues due to the selection of risk functions. In conclusion, all approaches revealed potential health risks due to smoke haze. Nonetheless, future studies should consider comparable exposure assessments to allow the integration of the three approaches.