Water Sensitive Cities Index: A diagnostic tool to assess water sensitivity and guide management actions.

Cities are wrestling with the practical challenges of transitioning urban water services to become water sensitive; capable of enhancing liveability, sustainability, resilience and productivity in the face of climate change, rapid urbanisation, degraded ecosystems and ageing infrastructure. Indicators can be valuable for guiding actions for improvement, but there is not yet an established index that measures the full suite of attributes that constitute water sensitive performance. This paper therefore presents the Water Sensitive Cities (WSC) Index, a new benchmarking and diagnostic tool to assess the water sensitivity of a municipal or metropolitan city, set aspirational targets and inform management responses to improve water sensitive practices. Its 34 indicators are organised into seven goals: ensure good water sensitive governance, increase community capital, achieve equity of essential services, improve productivity and resource efficiency, improve ecological health, ensure quality urban spaces, and promote adaptive infrastructure. The WSC Index design as a quantitative framework based on qualitative rating descriptions and a participatory assessment methodology enables local contextual interpretations of the indicators, while maintaining a robust universal framework for city comparison and benchmarking. The paper demonstrates its application on three illustrative cases. Rapid uptake of the WSC Index in Australia highlights its value in helping stakeholders develop collective commitment and evidence-based priorities for action to accelerate their city's water sensitive transition. Early testing in cities in Asia and the Pacific has also showed the potential of the WSC Index internationally.

Water Sensitive Cities Index: A diagnostic tool to assess water sensitivity and guide management actions.

Cities are wrestling with the practical challenges of transitioning urban water services to become water sensitive; capable of enhancing liveability, sustainability, resilience and productivity in the face of climate change, rapid urbanisation, degraded ecosystems and ageing infrastructure. Indicators can be valuable for guiding actions for improvement, but there is not yet an established index that measures the full suite of attributes that constitute water sensitive performance. This paper therefore presents the Water Sensitive Cities (WSC) Index, a new benchmarking and diagnostic tool to assess the water sensitivity of a municipal or metropolitan city, set aspirational targets and inform management responses to improve water sensitive practices. Its 34 indicators are organised into seven goals: ensure good water sensitive governance, increase community capital, achieve equity of essential services, improve productivity and resource efficiency, improve ecological health, ensure quality urban spaces, and promote adaptive infrastructure. The WSC Index design is a quantitative framework based on qualitative rating descriptions and a participatory assessment methodology, enabling local contextual interpretations of the indicators while maintaining a robust universal framework for city comparison and benchmarking. The paper demonstrates its application on three illustrative cases. Rapid uptake of the WSC Index in Australia highlights its value in helping stakeholders develop collective commitment and evidence-based priorities for action to accelerate their city's water sensitive transition. Early testing in cities in Asia, the Pacific and South Africa has also showed the potential of the WSC Index internationally.

An interdisciplinary and catchment approach to enhancing urban flood resilience: a Melbourne case.

This paper presents a novel interdisciplinary and catchment-based approach for exploring urban flood resilience. Our research identified and developed a diverse set of adaptation measures for Elwood, a suburb in Melbourne, Australia, that is vulnerable to pluvial and coastal flooding. We drew on methods from social science, urban design and environmental engineering to gain integrated insights into the opportunities for Elwood to increase its flood resilience and urban liveability. Results showed that an appropriate balance of social, infrastructural and urban design responses would be required to retreat from, accommodate and protect against flood risk. These would also deliver broader benefits such as securing water supplies through harvested stormwater and mitigating extreme heat through greener landscapes. Our interdisciplinary approach demonstrated the value of (i) engaging with the community to understand their concerns, aspirations and adaptation ideas, (ii) exploring design measures that densify and use urban forms in ways that implement adaptation measures while responding to local context, (iii) adopting modelling techniques to test the performance, robustness and economic viability of possible adaptation solutions, and (iv) innovating governance arrangements and principles needed to improve flood resilience in the Elster Creek catchment. Our research also provided valuable insight on how to operationalize interdisciplinary work in practice, highlighting the importance of sharing an impact agenda, taking a place-based approach, developing a common conceptual framework, and fostering a constructive team culture. This article is part of the theme issue 'Urban flood resilience'.

Integrated modelling of stormwater treatment systems uptake.

Nature-based solutions provide a variety of benefits in growing cities, ranging from stormwater treatment to amenity provision such as aesthetics. However, the decision-making process involved in the installation of such green infrastructure is not straightforward, as much uncertainty around the location, size, costs and benefits impedes systematic decision-making. We developed a model to simulate decision rules used by local municipalities to install nature-based stormwater treatment systems, namely constructed wetlands, ponds/basins and raingardens. The model was used to test twenty-four scenarios of policy-making, by combining four asset selection, two location selection and three budget constraint decision rules. Based on the case study of a local municipality in Metropolitan Melbourne, Australia, the modelled uptake of stormwater treatment systems was compared with attributes of real-world systems for the simulation period. Results show that the actual budgeted funding is not reliable to predict systems' uptake and that policy-makers are more likely to plan expenditures based on installation costs. The model was able to replicate the cumulative treatment capacity and the location of systems. As such, it offers a novel approach to investigate the impact of using different decision rules to provide environmental services considering biophysical and economic factors.

Modelling transitions in urban water systems.

Long term planning of urban water infrastructure requires acknowledgement that transitions in the water system are driven by changes in the urban environment, as well as societal dynamics. Inherent to the complexity of these underlying processes is that the dynamics of a system's evolution cannot be explained by linear cause-effect relationships and cannot be predicted under narrow sets of assumptions. Planning therefore needs to consider the functional behaviour and performance of integrated flexible infrastructure systems under a wide range of future conditions. This paper presents the first step towards a new generation of integrated planning tools that take such an exploratory planning approach. The spatially explicit model, denoted DAnCE4Water, integrates urban development patterns, water infrastructure changes and the dynamics of socio-institutional changes. While the individual components of the DAnCE4Water model (i.e. modules for simulation of urban development, societal dynamics and evolution/performance of water infrastructure) have been developed elsewhere, this paper presents their integration into a single model. We explain the modelling framework of DAnCE4Water, its potential utility and its software implementation. The integrated model is validated for the case study of an urban catchment located in Melbourne, Australia.

The application of a Web-geographic information system for improving urban water cycle modelling.

Research in urban water management has experienced a transition from traditional model applications to modelling water cycles as an integrated part of urban areas. This includes the interlinking of models of many research areas (e.g. urban development, socio-economy, urban water management). The integration and simulation is realized in newly developed frameworks (e.g. DynaMind and OpenMI) and often assumes a high knowledge in programming. This work presents a Web based urban water management modelling platform which simplifies the setup and usage of complex integrated models. The platform is demonstrated with a small application example on a case study within the Alpine region. The used model is a DynaMind model benchmarking the impact of newly connected catchments on the flooding behaviour of an existing combined sewer system. As a result the workflow of the user within a Web browser is demonstrated and benchmark results are shown. The presented platform hides implementation specific aspects behind Web services based technologies such that the user can focus on his main aim, which is urban water management modelling and benchmarking. Moreover, this platform offers a centralized data management, automatic software updates and access to high performance computers accessible with desktop computers and mobile devices.

Assessing the efficiency of different CSO positions based on network graph characteristics.

The technical design of urban drainage systems comprises two major aspects: first, the spatial layout of the sewer system and second, the pipe-sizing process. Usually, engineers determine the spatial layout of the sewer network manually, taking into account physical features and future planning scenarios. Before the pipe-sizing process starts, it is important to determine locations of possible weirs and combined sewer overflows (CSOs) based on, e.g. distance to receiving water bodies or to a wastewater treatment plant and available space for storage units. However, positions of CSOs are also determined by topological characteristics of the sewer networks. In order to better understand the impact of placement choices for CSOs and storage units in new systems, this work aims to determine case unspecific, general rules. Therefore, based on numerous, stochastically generated virtual alpine sewer systems of different sizes it is investigated how choices for placement of CSOs and storage units have an impact on the pipe-sizing process (hence, also on investment costs) and on technical performance (CSO efficiency and flooding). To describe the impact of the topological positions of these elements in the sewer networks, graph characteristics are used. With an evaluation of 2,000 different alpine combined sewer systems, it was found that, as expected, with CSOs at more downstream positions in the network, greater construction costs and better performance regarding CSO efficiency result. At a specific point (i.e. topological network position), no significant difference (further increase) in construction costs can be identified. Contrarily, the flooding efficiency increases with more upstream positions of the CSOs. Therefore, CSO and flooding efficiency are in a trade-off conflict and a compromise is required.

An agent-based approach for generating virtual sewer systems.

The application of artificial case studies is a well established technique in urban drainage to test measures, approaches or models. However, the preparation of a virtual case study for a sewer system is a tedious task. Several algorithms have been presented in the literature for an automatic generation of virtual sewer systems. Applying the approach of generating virtual cities by means of the software VIBe (Virtual Infrastructure Benchmarking) the urban structure (including elevation map, land use and population distribution) is generated firstly and the infrastructure is designed meeting the requirements of the urban structure. The aim of this paper is the development of an agent based approach for generating virtual sewer systems. This new algorithm functions as module of the software VIBe but can of course also be applied to a real city in order to get information on possible/optimal sewer placement. Here hundred virtual VIBe cities and for each twelve virtual sewer networks are generated and calibrated based on data of an alpine region. It is revealed that with the approach presented virtual sewer networks which are comparable with real world sewer networks can be generated. The agent based method provides data sets for benchmarking and allows case independent testing of new measures.

A case independent approach on the impact of climate change effects on combined sewer system performance.

Design and construction of urban drainage systems has to be done in a predictive way, as the average lifespan of such investments is several decades. The design engineer has to predict many influencing factors and scenarios for future development of a system (e.g. change in land use, population, water consumption and infiltration measures). Furthermore, climate change can cause increased rain intensities which leads to an additional impact on drainage systems. In this paper we compare the behaviour of different performance indicators of combined sewer systems when taking into account long-term environmental change effects (change in rainfall characteristics, change in impervious area and change in dry weather flow). By using 250 virtual case studies this approach is--in principle--a Monte Carlo Simulation in which not only parameter values are varied but the entire system structure and layout is changed in each run. Hence, results are more general and case-independent. For example the consideration of an increase of rainfall intensities by 20% has the same effect as an increase of impervious area of +40%. Such an increase of rainfall intensities could be compensated by infiltration measures in current systems which lead to a reduction of impervious area by 30%.

177 cardiovascular risk factors, classified in 10 categories, to be considered in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases: an update of the original 1982 article containing 96 risk factors.

The first comprehensive listing of cardiovascular risk factors was presented in this journal in 1982 in the article, "96 Cardiovascular Risk Factors" (by Y. Omura & S. Heller), which was the most extensive list of cardiovascular risk factors written on the subject at that time. Since then, much research has been carried out to identify cardiovascular risk factors; according to the authors' most recent computer search, close to 9,000 articles appeared between 1982 and 1996. Upon initial review of most of the abstracts of these articles, we were surprised to find that the number of cardiovascular risk factors has increased significantly (79 new factors in addition to those we published in 1982). With a few exceptions (7 risk factors are now considered to be questionable), those we listed in 1982 are still valid today, and have been further confirmed with additional data and improved technology. Through reviewing the abstracts of these articles, we found about 177 cardiovascular risk factors, including most of the 96 previously listed. Of the original 96, we have identified those now considered to be questionable, e.g. taking oral contraceptives, which today contain significantly lower doses of estrogen than in the past and are therefore much safer. All 177 cardiovascular risk factors are classified into the following 10 major categories, with the 11th category listing those factors now considered to be questionable: 1) Nutrition-Related Cardiovascular Risk Factors (33 risk factors) 2) Internal Cardiovascular Risk Factors Identifiable by Laboratory Tests: Abnormal Blood & Tissue Chemistry Findings Related to Cardiovascular Diseases (35 risk factors) 3) Drug, Chemical, Hormonal, and Nutritional Supplement Intake (Including Drug-Drug Interaction and Drug-Food Interaction) As Cardiovascular Risk Factors (34 risk factors) 4) Signs and Symptoms Associated With a High Incidence of Cardiovascular Diseases (33 risk factors) 5) Non-Invasively Detectable Abnormal Laboratory Findings Associated With Cardiovascular Diseases (13 risk factors) 6) Hereditary Cardiovascular Risk Factors (5 risk factors) 7) Environmental Cardiovascular Risk Factors, Including Air Pollution, Electromagnetic Fields, Materials that Contact the Body Surface, Poisonous Venoms, and Insertion of Needle into Infected Body Tissue by Acupuncture of Injection (14 risk factors) 8) Socioeconomic and Demographic Cardiovascular Risk Factors (7 risk factors) 9) Cardiovascular Risk Factors Related to Medical Care (2 risk factors) 10) Co-existence of Multiple Cardiovascular Risk Factors (1 risk factor) 11) Factors Previously Regarded As Cardiovascular Risk Factors, But Now in Question (7 risk factors) While a few factors, like hereditary characteristics, age, and sex, generally cannot be changed, most of the cardiovascular risk factors can be controlled by changing one's lifestyle, maintaining proper dietary intake, and correcting any existing abnormalities once each individual's unique constellation of cardiovascular risk factors is recognized. Some factors can be recognized by individuals themselves, but many other factors require physical examinations and laboratory tests by a physician or properly trained paramedical to be recognized. Medical examinations and blood chemistry and other laboratory tests may be necessary to establish baselines and measure changes over time. Once abnormal parameters are identified, periodic examinations should follow with proper corrective measures monitored by a qualified medical professional.

Long-term exposure to sulfur dioxide, sulfuric acid mist, fly ash, and their mixtures. Results of Studies in Monkeys and guinea pigs.

Groups of cynomolgus monkeys and guinea pigs were exposed to mixtures of sulfur dioxide, fly ash, and sulfuric acid mist. The exposure concentrations varied between 0.1 and 5.0 ppm for sulfur dioxide, 0.1 and 1 mg/cu m for sulfuric acid mist, while a concentration of approximately 0.5 mg/cu m was used for fly ash. The duration of exposure was 52 weeks for guinea-pigs and 78 weeks for monkeys. Pulmonary function tests and serum biochemical and hematological analyses were conducted prior to and periodically during the exposure period. At the termination of exposure, the lungs were examined microscopically. Analysis of the data revealed that in groups exposed to the mixtures of pollutants, sulfuric acid mist was responsible for the effects observed. No synergistic action between the pollutants was detected.