Variations in the shape of foramen magnum at the base of human skulls among Indians in Rajasthan.

Variations in the shape of foramen magnum can affect the normal anatomy of vital structures passing through it. Therefore, it is of interest to evaluate the various shapes of foramen magnum by using CT scans performed in patients of Indian population to establish clinical correlation. A total of 314 CT images of human skull base obtained from the Department of Radio-diagnosis, Geetanjali Medical College and Hospital, Udaipur, Rajasthan were used in the present study. All the patients' CT scans were observed to determine the shape of foramen magnum. They were classified into one of the following shapes: Oval, round, tetragonal, egg shaped, hexagonal, pentagonal and irregular. The shapes of the foramen magnum in CT scans were oval in 39.09%, round in 22.61%, tetragonal in 12.10%, hexagonal in 10.51%, irregular in 7.96%, pentagonal in 5.41% and egg shaped in 1.59% CT images. Data shows that it is easy to operate at the base of skull in case of round, oval and hexagonal shape foramen magnum, as the working space is more in these shapes.

Review of a paediatric inflammatory bowel disease service during the pandemic and the impact of the CNS role.

BACKGROUND: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic relapsing and remitting condition. The COVID-19 pandemic has severely disrupted provision of medical care across the world. IBD clinical nurse specialists (CNSs) played a pivotal role in the care of children with IBD during the pandemic national lockdown and in the recovery phase. This article aims to look at the impact of COVID-19 on the paediatric IBD service in one children's hospital and the effect on the IBD CNSs' workload. METHOD: A retrospective review of clinical notes and the service's IBD database from January 2019 to September 2020. RESULTS: There was a significant increase in the number of email and telephone contacts to the IBD CNS team during lockdown. There was an increase in virtual clinics, and an increase in new IBD patients coming to the service, but a reduction in the number of face-to-face consultant clinics. CONCLUSION: COVID-19 has disrupted medical services to children with IBD and led to a reduction in face-to-face activities but has also led to a significant increase in virtual activities. CNSs have taken up a wider role to cover patient care during a time of both medical and nursing redeployment.

Distal oesophageal spasm secondary to eosinophilic oesophagitis in a child: response to diet therapy.

We report a case of a school-age child with symptomatic distal oesophageal spasm (DES), clinical dysphagia and typical feature in high-resolution oesophageal manometry secondary to eosinophilic oesophagitis (EoE). His symptoms resolved with normalisation of oesophageal manometry after standard treatment of EoE. DES is mainly an adult disorder and rarely affect children; to the best of our knowledge, this is the first reported case in a child that document full recovery after treating the underlying EoE.

Azathioprine dosing and metabolite measurement in pediatric inflammatory bowel disease: does one size fit all?

BACKGROUND: Azathioprine is widely used for the maintenance of remission in children with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Measuring thiopurine metabolites 6-thioguanine (6-TGN) and 6-methyl-mercaptopurine (6-MMP) can aid in optimizing treatment and preventing toxicity. We report a proactive approach combining early metabolite measurements with IBD activity index to achieve optimal azathioprine dosing. METHODS: The reporting of azathioprine dosing, IBD activity indexes and thiopurine metabolites was evaluated retrospectively in 40 children with IBD. Additional treatments and the effect of azathioprine on blood counts were also examined. RESULTS: Forty children (40% female) with IBD (26 Crohn's disease, 12 ulcerative colitis, and 2 unclassified IBD), mean age 12.2±3.4 years, were included in the study. The mean azathioprine dose was 1.3±0.4 mg/kg; mean 6-TGN level was 280±151 pmol/8 × 108 red blood cells (RBC) and mean 6-MMP level 1022±1007 pmol/8 × 108 RBC. Disease activity index (Crohn's and ulcerative colitis, pediatric specific) at the time of metabolite measurement was 6.5±8. Twenty-eight children did not require azathioprine dose adjustment, while it was increased in 12. Data from children with azathioprine monotherapy were analyzed separately and the results were similar. CONCLUSION: Timely measurement of thiopurine metabolites and clinical assessment can provide a powerful tool to optimize azathioprine dosing and reduce serious adverse effects in children with IBD.

Palm Oil and Beta-palmitate in Infant Formula: A Position Paper by the European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) Committee on Nutrition.

BACKGROUND: Palm oil (PO) is used in infant formulas in order to achieve palmitic acid (PA) levels similar to those in human milk. PA in PO is esterified predominantly at the SN-1,3 position of triacylglycerol (TAG), and infant formulas are now available in which a greater proportion of PA is in the SN-2 position (typical configuration in human milk). As there are some concerns about the use of PO, we aimed to review literature on health effects of PO and SN-2-palmitate in infant formulas. METHODS: PubMed and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews were systematically searched for relevant studies on possible beneficial effects or harms of either PO or SN-2-palmitate in infant formula on various health outcomes. RESULTS: We identified 12 relevant studies using PO and 21 studies using SN-2-palmitate. Published studies have variable methodology, subject characteristics, and some are underpowered for the key outcomes. PO is associated with harder stools and SN-2-palmitate use may lead to softer stool consistency. Bone effects seem to be short-lasting. For some outcomes (infant colic, faecal microbiota, lipid metabolism), the number of studies is very limited and summary evidence inconclusive. Growth of infants is not influenced. There are no studies published on the effect on markers of later diseases. CONCLUSIONS: There is insufficient evidence to suggest that PO should be avoided as a source of fat in infant formulas for health reasons. Inclusion of high SN-2-palmitate fat blend in infant formulas may have short-term effects on stool consistency but cannot be considered essential.

How good is quality-of-life for children receiving home parenteral nutrition? - A pilot study.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Children on home parenteral nutrition and their parents not only engage with complex nutritional issues but also have to manage difficult social and financial problems with social and clinical support that may not always meet their needs. Baxter's HPN-QOL questionnaire, assesses the QOL of adult patients treated with HPN, and has been developed rigorously using standard guidelines, measuring various dimensions of QOL. Our aim was to use this tool to explore how HPN influences the QOL of paediatric patients. METHODS: The HPN-QOL questionnaire was modified to suit a paediatric HPN population. Data on demographics, aetiology of intestinal failure and duration of HPN were collected from a departmental database. Quality-of-Life grading of functional and symptom scales, HPN specific items and overall QOL Numerical Rating Scales were determined. RESULTS: Fourteen out of 17 families returned the completed questionnaires. QOL was significantly impaired by increased dependency regarding items of daily living such as eating, dressing, washing, and mobility, but was not affected in the domains of school attendance, general fatigue, pain and body image. There were no significant differences in QOL when patients with and without enterostomy were compared. Patients felt well supported by the hospital nutrition team in managing logistics related to HPN. CONCLUSIONS: QOL in HPN patients was not significantly affected by the medical aspects of care. This descriptive study highlights the need for further integration of medical and social care in order to support families of children receiving HPN as QOL was impaired in relation to activities of daily living and social functioning.

Young Child Formula: A Position Paper by the ESPGHAN Committee on Nutrition.

Young child formulae (YCF) are milk-based drinks or plant protein-based formulae intended to partially satisfy the nutritional requirements of young children ages 1 to 3 years. Although widely available on the market, their composition is, however, not strictly regulated and health effects have not been systematically studied. Therefore, the European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) Committee on Nutrition (CoN) performed a systematic review of the literature to review the composition of YCF and consider their role in the diet of young children. The review revealed limited data but identified that YCF have a highly variable composition, which is in some cases inappropriate with very high protein and carbohydrate content and even high amounts of added sugars. Based on the evidence, ESPGHAN CoN suggests that the nutrient composition of YCF should be similar to that of follow-on formulae with regards to energy and nutrients that may be deficient in the diets of European young children such as iron, vitamin D, and polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs), whereas the protein content should aim toward the lower end of the permitted range of follow-on formulae if animal protein is used. There are data to show that YCF increase intakes of vitamin D, iron, and n-3 PUFAs. However, these nutrients can also be provided via regular and/or fortified foods or supplements. Therefore, ESPGHAN CoN suggests that based on available evidence there is no necessity for the routine use of YCF in children from 1 to 3 years of life, but they can be used as part of a strategy to increase the intake of iron, vitamin D, and n-3 PUFA and decrease the intake of protein compared with unfortified cow's milk. Follow-on formulae can be used for the same purpose. Other strategies for optimizing nutritional intake include promotion of a healthy varied diet, use of fortified foods, and use of supplements.

Sugar in Infants, Children and Adolescents: A Position Paper of the European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition Committee on Nutrition.

The consumption of sugars, particularly sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs; beverages or drinks that contain added caloric sweeteners (ie, sucrose, high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juice concentrates), in European children and adolescents exceeds current recommendations. This is of concern because there is no nutritional requirement for free sugars, and infants have an innate preference for sweet taste, which may be modified and reinforced by pre- and postnatal exposures. Sugar-containing beverages/free sugars increase the risk for overweight/obesity and dental caries, can result in poor nutrient supply and reduced dietary diversity, and may be associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular risk, and other health effects. The term "free sugars," includes all monosaccharides/disaccharides added to foods/beverages by the manufacturer/cook/consumer, plus sugars naturally present in honey/syrups/unsweetened fruit juices and fruit juice concentrates. Sugar naturally present in intact fruits and lactose in amounts naturally present in human milk or infant formula, cow/goat milk, and unsweetened milk products is not free sugar. Intake of free sugars should be reduced and minimised with a desirable goal of <5% energy intake in children and adolescents aged ≥2 to 18 years. Intake should probably be even lower in infants and toddlers <2 years. Healthy approaches to beverage and dietary consumption should be established in infancy, with the aim of preventing negative health effects in later childhood and adulthood. Sugar should preferably be consumed as part of a main meal and in a natural form as human milk, milk, unsweetened dairy products, and fresh fruits, rather than as SSBs, fruit juices, smoothies, and/or sweetened milk products. Free sugars in liquid form should be replaced by water or unsweetened milk drinks. National Authorities should adopt policies aimed at reducing the intake of free sugars in infants, children and adolescents. This may include education, improved labelling, restriction of advertising, introducing standards for kindergarten and school meals, and fiscal measures, depending on local circumstances.

Age-related alterations in blood and colonic dendritic cell properties.

BACKGROUND: Dendritic cells (DC) determine initiation, type and location of immune responses and, in adults, show decreased Toll-like receptors and some increased cytokine levels on ageing. Few studies in children have characterised DC or explored DC-related mechanisms producing age-related immune changes. RESULTS: The pDC marker BDCA2 (but not CD123) was absent in pre-pubertal children and numbers of pDC decreased with age. Blood and colonic DC were more mature and activated in adults. Decrease in pDC numbers correlated with reduced GM-CSF levels with aging, but increasing IL-4 and IL-8 levels correlated with a more activated DC profile in blood. CXCL16 levels decreased with age. METHODS: Blood and colonic DC phenotypes were determined in healthy adults and children by flow cytometry and correlated with aging. Blood DC were divided into plasmacytoid (pDC) and myeloid (mDC) while only mDC were identified in colon. Serum cytokine levels were determined by multiplex cytokine assays and correlated with DC properties. CONCLUSIONS: In children, lack of BDCA2, a receptor mediating antigen capture and inhibiting interferon induction, may be immunologically beneficial during immune development. Conversely, reduced pDC numbers, probably secondary to decreasing GM-CSF and increasing cytokine-induced maturation of DC are likely to determine deteriorating immunity with ageing.

Chemokine (C-C Motif) Receptor 2 Mediates Dendritic Cell Recruitment to the Human Colon but Is Not Responsible for Differences Observed in Dendritic Cell Subsets, Phenotype, and Function Between the Proximal and Distal Colon.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Most knowledge about gastrointestinal (GI)-tract dendritic cells (DC) relies on murine studies where CD103+ DC specialize in generating immune tolerance with the functionality of CD11b+/- subsets being unclear. Information about human GI-DC is scarce, especially regarding regional specifications. Here, we characterized human DC properties throughout the human colon. METHODS: Paired proximal (right/ascending) and distal (left/descending) human colonic biopsies from 95 healthy subjects were taken; DC were assessed by flow cytometry and microbiota composition assessed by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. RESULTS: Colonic DC identified were myeloid (mDC, CD11c+CD123-) and further divided based on CD103 and SIRPα (human analog of murine CD11b) expression. CD103-SIRPα+ DC were the major population and with CD103+SIRPα+ DC were CD1c+ILT3+CCR2+ (although CCR2 was not expressed on all CD103+SIRPα+ DC). CD103+SIRPα- DC constituted a minor subset that were CD141+ILT3-CCR2-. Proximal colon samples had higher total DC counts and fewer CD103+SIRPα+ cells. Proximal colon DC were more mature than distal DC with higher stimulatory capacity for CD4+CD45RA+ T-cells. However, DC and DC-invoked T-cell expression of mucosal homing markers (ß7, CCR9) was lower for proximal DC. CCR2 was expressed on circulating CD1c+, but not CD141+ mDC, and mediated DC recruitment by colonic culture supernatants in transwell assays. Proximal colon DC produced higher levels of cytokines. Mucosal microbiota profiling showed a lower microbiota load in the proximal colon, but with no differences in microbiota composition between compartments. CONCLUSIONS: Proximal colonic DC subsets differ from those in distal colon and are more mature. Targeted immunotherapy using DC in T-cell mediated GI tract inflammation may therefore need to reflect this immune compartmentalization.

Clinical Experience of Use of High-dose Intravenous Methylprednisolone in Children With Acute Moderate to Severe Colitis.

OBJECTIVES: Treatment of acute severe colitis (ASC) has been associated with high morbidity and high colectomy rate in children. In the prebiologics era, our centre used short-term high-dose intravenous corticosteroids (IVCS) at 2 to 30 mg ·â€Škg ·â€Šday. We conducted a retrospective review to compare efficacy of different dosing regimes of IVCS. METHODS: Thirty-four children treated with IVCS for ASC were included over 8 years. Patients were studied as 2 groups with similar pretreatment patient characteristics. Group 1 (standard dose) received IVCS at 2 mg ·â€Škg ·â€Šday and group 2 (high dose) received IVCS at 10 to 30 mg ·â€Škg ·â€Šday. Safety, efficacy, and follow-up of the entire cohort for >1 year were studied. The median IVCS dose in the standard- and high-dose cohort was 1.5 mg ·â€Škg ·â€Šday (maximum 60 mg ·â€Škg ·â€Šday) and 24.8 mg ·â€Škg ·â€Šday (maximum 1000 mg ·â€Škg ·â€Šday), respectively. RESULTS: Pediatric Ulcerative Colitis Activity Index scores at day 5 were significantly lower in high-dose (15, interquartile range 8.5-20) than in standard-dose IVCS (30, interquartile range 20-30). IVCS side effects were minor and reversible. Overall, medical salvage therapy was required in 5.8% (2 children) before discharge, and in 17% (6 children) at follow-up after 1 year. The colectomy rate of the entire cohort was remarkably low with 0% during admission and 11% (4 children) after 1 year, with a trend of less colectomies in high-dose (4.8%-1 child) than in standard-dose (23%-3 children). CONCLUSIONS: Our data show that in paediatric ASC, the short-term use of high-dose IVCS is safe and effective. Prospective studies are needed to define the role of IVCS within salvage therapy protocols.