Critically appraised topic: the use of vaccination to control the spread of foot-and-mouth disease in Australian livestock in the event of an incursion.

With recent outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in Indonesia and Bali, industry, government and public concern for its incursion into Australia is increasing. The potential impact of an outbreak on the agricultural industry and national economy could be devastating. To date, research conducted in relation to FMD in Australia predominantly concerns simulations and models performed to predict various outcomes. This project critically appraises the current literature regarding the simulated use of vaccination and its effectiveness for controlling the spread of FMD in Australia in the event of an outbreak. Findings from 10 modelling studies suggest that vaccination is effective at controlling the size and duration of an outbreak (under certain conditions), however, there is less clarity about cost-effectiveness.

Embedding research and enquiry in Australian DVM curriculum.

Research and enquiry (R&E) is an integral part of veterinary training. It is a foundation of evidence-based practice. In the University of Sydney Doctor of Veterinary Medicine degree R&E culminates in a cap-stone experience in Year 3: a 'professionally focused project', a student-driven and academic supported individual research project. The project provides an authentic experience within a veterinary discipline. Students work with an academic advisor who provides guidance for developing and achieving meaningful educational and professional goals. Successful advising depends upon a shared understanding of, and commitment to, the advising process by students, advisors and the university. The R&E mission can be broadly defined as - veterinarians recognise that evidence-based approach to practice, which is based on the scientific method, leads to the generation of new knowledge that underpins the veterinary medical profession.

Serological evidence of exposure of healthy dogs to Leptospira in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.

In 2017, highly fatal canine leptospirosis emerged in Sydney, Australia. Based on results of microscopic agglutination testing (MAT), serovar Copenhageni appeared to be the most common causative serovar. Prior to this, no clinical cases had been reported since 1976. In a serosurvey of healthy dogs in Australian shelters in 2004, 2.4% of 431 New South Wales dogs had serological evidence of exposure to Copenhageni, the most prevalent serovar. The aim of this study was to estimate the current prevalence of Leptospira exposure and associated serovars in healthy Sydney dogs, previously unvaccinated against Leptospira. Serum samples from 411 healthy dogs in leptospirosis hotspots and neighbouring suburbs were collected before vaccination. MAT for 23 serovars was performed at the WHO Leptospirosis Reference Laboratory in Queensland, Australia. The overall seroprevalence was 4.1% (17/411) with low titres (1/50-1/200) detected. Eleven dogs were from known leptospirosis hotspots. Eight dogs were known to hunt rodents. One dog had been in contact with a leptospirosis positive dog 1 year prior. Serovar Topaz was the most prevalent serovar (n = 5) followed by serovars Australis (n = 4), Copenhageni (n = 4), Djasiman (n = 2), Cynopteri (n = 1), Javanica (n = 1), Medanensis (n = 1), and Pomona (n = 1). In conclusion, serological evidence of exposure of dogs in Sydney to Leptospira is low, but apparently has increased since 2004. Positive titres to serovars not previously reported to cause disease in dogs could be due to low virulence of those serovars or cross-reactivity with other serovars.

The black summer bushfires: impacts and risk factors for livestock bushfire injury in south-eastern Australia.

BACKGROUND: The 2019/2020 Australian bushfires were the largest bushfire event in modern Australian history. While actions to mitigate risk to homes from bushfires are well reported, there is very little research reported on the impacts of bushfires on livestock. With an increasing incidence of bushfires predicted, there is an urgent need to identify how farmers can best protect their livestock. OBJECTIVES: Compare bushfire affected farms with and without injured livestock to identify associations between risk factors and bushfire injury. Infer management approaches that can be used to reduce bushfire injury in livestock. METHOD: A case-control study using a structured interview questionnaire, delivered in late 2020 to cattle and sheep farmers in south-eastern Australia (New South Wales and Victoria) whose farmland was burnt in the 2019/2020 Australian bushfires. Case farms were farms with bushfires injured or killed livestock. Control farms were farms that had no bushfire injured livestock but that still had fire present on the farm. Interview responses were summarised and information theoretical approaches were used to identify potential risk factors for livestock bushfire injury and protective actions that could inform future fire-preparation recommendations. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Of 46 farms in the case-control study, 21 (46%) reported bushfire injured or killed livestock. Apparent protective factors identified included: preparation (having a bushfire plan and more than two farm bushfire fighting units), backburning and receiving assistance from fire authorities. Combined beef and sheep grazing enterprises appeared to have an increased risk of bushfire injury to livestock.

Sickness presenteeism associated with influenza-like illness in veterinarians working in New South Wales: Results of a state-wide survey.

BACKGROUND: Sickness presenteeism in the veterinary profession potentially jeopardises the wellbeing of veterinary team members and endangers quality of patient care. In veterinary team members with influenza-like illness (ILI), sickness presenteeism poses a risk to the health and wellbeing of colleagues and clients, particularly in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. This study aimed to evaluate factors associated with sickness presenteeism in NSW registered veterinarians suffering from ILI, both before and since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: Veterinarians registered in NSW were invited to complete an anonymous online mixed-methods survey between 31 March 2021 and 31 June 2021, regarding sickness presenteeism and absenteeism associated with ILI. The questionnaire was distributed through online and print newsletters of the Australian Veterinary Association NSW Branch and the NSW Veterinary Practitioners Board. RESULTS: From a total of 122 participants, 81 veterinarians (66.4%) reported that they would attend work despite displaying symptoms of ILI. Most veterinarians would stay at home with a fever alone (n = 108, 88.5%), however, many would still attend work with a sore throat (n = 121, 99.2%) or a dry cough (n = 91, 74.6%). Sickness presenteeism was significantly associated with lack of staff to cover workers. Although sickness presenteeism remained common, participants reported that they were less likely to attend work with symptoms of ILI since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. DISCUSSION: The data are discussed in relation to sickness presenteeism in healthcare workers. These findings underscore an urgent need for relief staff to decrease sickness presenteeism.

A scoping review of live wildlife trade in markets worldwide.

Wet markets sell fresh food and are a global phenomenon. They are important for food security in many regions worldwide but have come under scrutiny due to their potential role in the emergence of infectious diseases. The sale of live wildlife has been highlighted as a particular risk, and the World Health Organisation has called for the banning of live, wild-caught mammalian species in markets unless risk assessment and effective regulations are in place. Following PRISMA guidelines, we conducted a global scoping review of peer-reviewed information about the sale of live, terrestrial wildlife in markets that are likely to sell fresh food, and collated data about the characteristics of such markets, activities involving live wildlife, the species sold, their purpose, and animal, human, and environmental health risks that were identified. Of the 56 peer-reviewed records within scope, only 25% (n = 14) focussed on disease risks; the rest focused on the impact of wildlife sale on conservation. Although there were some global patterns (for example, the types of markets and purpose of sale of wildlife), there was wide diversity and huge epistemic uncertainty in all aspects associated with live, terrestrial wildlife sale in markets such that the feasibility of accurate assessment of the risk of emerging infectious disease associated with live wildlife trade in markets is currently limited. Given the value of both wet markets and wildlife trade and the need to support food affordability and accessibility, conservation, public health, and the social and economic aspects of livelihoods of often vulnerable people, there are major information gaps that need to be addressed to develop evidence-based policy in this environment. This review identifies these gaps and provides a foundation from which information for risk assessments can be collected.

Emerging leptospirosis in urban Sydney dogs: a case series (2017-2020).

Canine leptospirosis has not been reported in the Sydney dog population since 1976. However, between 2017 and 2020, leptospirosis was confirmed in 17 dogs, five of which were known to hunt rodents. Dogs infected between 2017 and 2019 lived within a 3 km radius in the Inner City of Sydney (n = 11). In 2020, cases emerged across a broader area of Sydney; Inner City (n = 1), Inner West (n = 3), Lower North Shore (n = 1) and Upper North Shore (n = 1). The disease was characterised by severe hepatorenal involvement resulting in an unusually high case fatality rate (88%). In conjunction with supportive clinical signs, diagnosis was confirmed by real-time PCR on whole blood (n = 1), kidney (n = 1), urine (n = 4), whole blood and urine (n = 9) or by seroconversion (n = 3). Antibody titres determined by Microscopic Agglutination Test (MAT) to Leptospira serovars were measured in 12 dogs: seven were positive for serovar Copenhageni, one was positive for serovar Hardjo, three were negative for all serovars, likely due to insufficient time for seroconversion before death and one had a low positive titre (1/50) for serovars Australis and Robinsoni. This sudden emergence of a highly fatal disease in pet dogs in Sydney has led to the introduction of Leptospira vaccination protocols for dogs living in inner Sydney using a monovalent vaccine containing serovar Copenhageni. The success of this vaccination program will require ongoing research to understand the emergence of leptospirosis in this region and the serovars involved.

Communication challenges experienced by veterinary professionals during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic and associated restrictions have caused major changes in veterinary practice. Utilising a subset of qualitative data from a global survey of 540 veterinarians, veterinary nurses and animal health technicians, we highlight the impact of these changes on communication in veterinary clinical practice. Communication challenges experienced by veterinary team members included lack of face-to-face contact with clients; increased difficulty in communicating in general; inability to demonstrate physical examination, diagnostic findings or treatment information to clients; difficulty in communicating while wearing personal protective equipment; increased 'miscommunication' and challenges in convincing clients of the importance of pandemic-associated protocols. These findings suggest a need for veterinary teams to modify and adapt their communication strategies to facilitate effective communication where social distancing and noncontact consultations are required.

Distribution of mortality patterns in cats with naturally occurring trauma: A Veterinary Committee on Trauma registry study.

A greater understanding of the prognostic variables that affect the timing of death for cats with trauma may help clinicians select treatments and monitoring plans. This study investigated the mortality rate and its distribution pattern in a large population of cats to identify variables associated with the timing of trauma-related deaths. Clinical data was retrieved from the Veterinary Committee on Trauma database to determine mortality rates and timing of deaths, defined as early death (ED; <1 day post-presentation) or delayed death (DD; ≥1 day post-presentation). Multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed to identify characteristics and interventions that best predicted timing of death. Overall mortality rate for 6703 feline trauma patients with complete records was 17.2%, with 7.6% due to natural death and 92.3% due to euthanasia. Among the subset of 543 cats with trauma that died after presentation or required euthanasia due to a grave prognosis (representing an 8.1% mortality rate), EDs were more common (71.7%) than DD and the cause of death was not significantly associated with the timing of death. Clinical pathology parameters were unable to identify animals more likely to die or to require euthanasia due to a poor prognosis during hospitalisation. Factors that were significantly different for cats with ED vs. DD included the median cumulative results for the Modified Glasgow Coma Scale (MGCS) score and the Animal Trauma Triage (ATT) score, the presence of spinal trauma, administration of blood products and undertaking surgical procedures. An increased likelihood of DD rather than ED was associated with the administration of blood products (odds ratio [OR], 3.959; P = 0.019) vs. not, performing a surgical procedure (OR, 6.055; P < 0.001) vs. not, and a cumulative MGCS of 15-17 or 18 (OR, 1.947 and 3.115; P = 0.031 and P = 0.01, respectively) vs. a cumulative MGCS ≤ 11.

Investigation into clinicopathological and pathological findings, prognosis, and aetiology of lorikeet paralysis syndrome in rainbow lorikeets (Trichoglossus haematodus).

OBJECTIVE: To report the temporal and spatial distribution of rainbow lorikeets presenting with lorikeet paralysis syndrome (LPS) and their clinicopathologic and pathologic findings, exposure to toxins, and response to treatment. METHODS: Records of lorikeets admitted in 2017 and 2018 to facilities in south-east Queensland (QLD) were reviewed and LPS and non-LPS cases were mapped and their distribution compared. Plasma biochemistries and complete blood counts were done on 20 representative lorikeets from south-east QLD and Grafton, New South Wales (NSW). Tissues from 28 lorikeets were examined histologically. Samples were tested for pesticides (n = 19), toxic elements (n = 23), botulism (n = 15) and alcohol (n = 5). RESULTS: LPS occurred in warmer months. Affected lorikeets were found across south-east QLD. Hotspots were identified in Brisbane and the Sunshine Coast. Lorikeets had a heterophilic leucocytosis, elevated muscle enzymes, uric acid and sodium and chloride. Specific lesions were not found. Exposure to cadmium was common in LPS and non-LPS lorikeets. Treated lorikeets had a 60-93% See Table 2 depending on severity of signs. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The primary differential diagnosis for lorikeets presenting with lower motor neuron signs during spring, summer and autumn in northern NSW and south-east Queensland should be LPS. With supportive care, prognosis is fair to good.

Hybridisation between dingoes and domestic dogs in proximity to Indigenous communities in northern Australia.

In northern Australia, wild dog populations potentially interact with domestic dogs from remote communities, which would create opportunities for disease transmission at the wild-domestic interface. An example is rabies, in the event of an incursion into northern Australia. However, the likelihood of such wild-domestic interactions is ambiguous. Hybridisation analyses based on 23 microsatellite DNA markers were performed on canine-origin scats collected in bushland areas around remote Indigenous communities in the Northern Peninsula Area, Queensland. Sufficient DNA was extracted from 6 of 41 scats to assess the percentage of dingo purity. These scats most likely originated from two 'pure' domestic dogs (0% dingo purity), one hybrid (20% dingo purity) and three 'pure' dingoes (92%-98% dingo purity). The two domestic dog samples were collected in the vicinity of communities. The location of two of the dingo-origin samples provides genetic evidence that dingoes are present in areas close to the communities. The availability of anthropogenic food resources likely creates opportunities for interactions with domestic dogs in the region. The hybrid sample demonstrates the occurrence of antecedent contacts between both populations by means of mating and supports the likelihood of a spatio-temporal overlap at the wild-domestic interface. This represents the first genetic survey involving a wild dog population of equatorial northern Queensland, with evidence of dingo purity. Our results have implications for potential disease transmission within a priority area for biosecurity in northern Australia.

Risk factors for rabid animal bites: a study in domestic ruminants in Mymensingh district, Bangladesh.

Rabies is endemic in Bangladesh. To identify risk factors, a case-control study was conducted based on hospital-reported rabid animal bite (RAB) cases in domestic ruminants, 2009 - 2018. RAB cases (n = 449) and three controls per case were selected. Dogs (87.8%) and jackals (12.2%) were most often identified as biting animals. In the final multivariable model, the risk of being a RAB case was significantly higher in cattle aged >0.5-2 years (odds ratio (OR) 2.89; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.56-5.37), >2-5 years (OR 3.63; 95% CI: 1.97-6.67) and >5 years (OR 6.42; 95% CI: 3.39-12.17) compared to those aged <0.5 years. Crossbred cattle were at higher risk of being a RAB case (OR 5.48; 95% CI: 3.56-8.42) than indigenous. Similarly, female cattle were more likely to be a RAB case (OR 1.26; 95% CI: 1.15-2.29) than males. Cattle in rural areas (OR 39.48; 95% CI: 6.14-254.00) were at a much higher risk of being RAB cases than those in urban areas. Female, crossbred and older cattle, especially in rural areas should either be managed indoors during the dog breeding season (September and October) or vaccinated. A national rabies elimination program should prioritise rural dogs for mass vaccination. Jackals should also be immunised using oral bait vaccines. Prevention of rabies in rural dogs and jackals would also reduce rabies incidence in humans.

Seasonal and spatial overlap in activity between domestic dogs and dingoes in remote Indigenous communities of northern Australia.

Free-roaming domestic dogs in Indigenous communities of northern Australia have the potential to spread diseases at the wild-domestic dog interface. Hunting activities with domestic dogs, commonly practiced in Indigenous communities, also create opportunities for wild-domestic dog interactions in the bush, providing pathways for potential disease spread. Data from a camera-trap study conducted in remote Indigenous communities of northern Australia were used to explore spatial and seasonal opportunities for interactions between dingoes and unsupervised domestic dogs. For each type of dog, activity indices, based on detection events per camera station with an adjustment for sampling effort, were mapped across the study area and plotted against distance to communities. Unsupervised domestic dogs were mostly active in proximity (<1 km) to the communities. However, there was a noticeable peak of activity further in the bush away from the communities, especially in the wet season, coinciding with areas commonly used for hunting activities. In contrast, the activity of dingoes was more homogeneous within the study area, with a higher peak of activity around the communities during the dry season, and in bush areas distant (>10 km) to communities during the wet season. Overall, our findings suggest that interactions between dingoes and unsupervised community dogs are more likely to occur around the communities, particularly during the dry season, whereas in the wet season, there is increased opportunity for interactions in distant areas in the bush between dingoes and, presumably, hunting dogs.

A history of canine parvovirus in Australia: what can we learn?

Canine parvovirus (CPV) has been reported throughout the world since the late 1970s. Published information was reviewed to draw insights into the epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment and outcomes of CPV disease in Australia and the role of scientific research on CPV occurrence, with key research discoveries and knowledge gaps identified. Australian researchers contributed substantially to early findings, including the first reported cases of parvoviral myocarditis, investigations into disease aetiopathogenesis, host and environmental risk factors and links between CPV and feline panleukopenia. Two of the world's first CPV serological surveys were conducted in Australia and a 1980 national veterinary survey of Australian and New Zealand dogs revealed 6824 suspected CPV cases and 1058 deaths. In 2010, an Australian national disease surveillance system was launched; 4940 CPV cases were reported between 2009 and 2014, although underreporting was likely. A 2017 study estimated national incidence to be 4.12 cases per 1000 dogs, and an annual case load of 20,110 based on 4219 CPV case reports in a survey of all Australian veterinary clinics, with a 23.5% response rate. CPV disease risk factors identified included socioeconomic disadvantage, geographical location (rural/remote), season (summer) and rainfall (recent rain and longer dry periods both increasing risk). Age <16 weeks was identified as a risk factor for vaccination failure. Important knowledge gaps exist regarding national canine and feline demographic and CPV case data, vaccination coverage and population immunity, CPV transmission between owned dogs and other carnivore populations in Australia and the most effective methods to control epizootics.

Knowledge and attitudes of Australian livestock producers concerning biosecurity practices.

Biosecurity risks are a major threat to the profitability of the industry as well as impacting human and animal health. Livestock producers play a crucial role in biosecurity as the first to notice changes in the health or productivity of their stock and are generally responsible for implementing protective measures. However, uptake of biosecurity measures by producers is variable. We critically appraised the current literature regarding biosecurity practices in Australian livestock industries and highlight aspects that are well understood as well as those where further research or information is needed. Findings from 12 cross-sectional studies suggest that Australian producers' knowledge of biosecurity methods and importance might have a positive influence on their willingness to implement or incorporate biosecurity practices. There is moderate evidence supportive of biosecurity being well understood by livestock producers across Australia. Barriers to producers using biosecurity practices included lack of information or communication from agricultural, veterinary or government organisations. It was found that larger stock numbers were positively correlated with biosecurity implementation and that producers used veterinarians, government and industry agencies as resources for trusted information.

Incidence of presenting complaints and diagnoses in insured Australian dogs.

Knowledge of the most common presenting complaints and diagnoses in companion animals is valuable in preparing veterinary students and veterinarians to manage the most frequently observed conditions in clinical practice. Pet insurance databases provide access to large sample populations and have been previously used to describe disease incidence in companion animals. The aim of this study was to determine the incidence of presenting complaints and diagnoses in insured Australian dogs through the use of a pet insurance database. Analysis of a de-identified dataset containing pet insurance claims associated with presenting complaints and diagnoses from 488,472 insured Australian dogs insured in the years 2016 and 2017, was performed. Annual incidence rates of presenting complaints and diagnoses were calculated and expressed as, number of events per 1,000 dog years at risk. The presenting complaints with the highest incidence were vomiting (14.21 events per 1,000 dog years at risk in 2016, 15.80 events per 1,000 dog years at risk in 2017) and pruritus (8.79 events per 1,000 dog years at risk in 2016, 10.30 events per 1,000 dog years at risk in 2017). Presenting complaints affecting the gastrointestinal system were the most common (19.20 events per 1,000 dog years at risk in 2016, 20.77 events per 1,000 dog years at risk in 2017). The diagnoses with the highest incidence were otitis externa (34.12 events per 1,000 dog years at risk in 2016, 34.82 events per 1,000 dog years at risk in 2017) and dermatitis (28.05 events per 1,000 dog years at risk in 2016, 29.99 events per 1,000 dog years at risk in 2017). Diagnoses affecting the integument were the most common (216.56 events per 1,000 dog years at risk in 2016, 219.06 events per 1,000 dog years at risk in 2017). The results from this study can aid in the design of relevant veterinary curricula and may be helpful in prioritising research on common clinical conditions.

Citizens' juries give verdict on whether private practice veterinarians should attend unvaccinated Hendra virus suspect horses.

BACKGROUND: Hendra virus (HeV) is endemic in Australian flying foxes, posing a threat to equine and human health. Equine vaccination remains the most effective risk mitigation strategy. Many horses remain unvaccinated - even in higher-risk regions. Debate surrounding the vaccine's use is characterised by conflicting perspectives, misunderstanding and mistrust. Private veterinary practitioners are critical to early identification of public health risk through recognition, sampling and management of suspect-equine-HeV-cases. However, managing such cases can be burdensome, with some veterinarians opting not to attend unvaccinated horses or to abandon equine practice because of risk posed by HeV disease and liability. OBJECTIVE: Ascertain the perspectives of informed citizens on what obligations (if any) private veterinarians have to attend unvaccinated horses with HeV or HeV-like disease. METHODS: Three citizens' juries were tasked with considering approaches to managing HeV risk in Australia, including (reported here) roles and obligations of private veterinarians in responding to HeV-suspect-cases. RESULTS: Jurors acknowledged that HeV management posed an important challenge for private veterinarians. A clear majority (27 of 31 jurors) voted that veterinarians should not be obliged to attend unvaccinated horses. All recognised that greater support for veterinarians should be a priority. CONCLUSIONS: When informed of HeV risks and strategies for control and management, citizens appreciated the need to support veterinarians performing this critical 'One Health' role for public benefit. The current governance framework within which zoonotic disease recognition and response operates limits the contingency and scope for increasing support and efficacy of these important veterinary public health practices.

A canine distemper virus seroprevalence study of dogs on three islands in the Torres Strait region, Australia.

Canine distemper virus (CDV) can cause mortality in domestic dogs, which is easily prevented by the consistent application of vaccination protocols. The aim of this study was to determine if the dog populations of three strategically located islands in the Torres Strait of Australia, adjacent to Papua New Guinea, are infected by CDV. Eighty-four serum samples were collected from 70 dogs resident on Saibai, Dauan and Boigu Islands during 2017-2018. Sera were tested for CDV antibodies by a virus neutralization test (VNT). Overall, 7 (8.3%) sera from 6 (8.6%) dogs resident on all three islands were test positive. VNT titres ranged from 20 to >1280. Male adult dogs were more commonly seropositive than female and juvenile dogs. Considering the origin and age of test positive dogs, and veterinary visits to these islands, it was concluded that there is evidence of exposure to a field strain of CDV - rather than previous vaccination - in 4 of the 70 dogs (5.7%) tested in this study. Given the strategic location of these islands in a zone of high biosecurity risk, ongoing surveillance of pathogens such as CDV could inform on potential disease spread pathways in this region. In addition, the presence of high serological titres in the apparent absence of clinical disease requires further investigation.

Canine parvovirus prevention-What influence do socioeconomics, remoteness, caseload and demographics have on veterinarians' perceptions and behaviors?

Canine parvovirus (CPV) is a cause of severe disease in dogs globally, yet is preventable by vaccination. A range of vaccination protocols are used by veterinary practitioners with evidence suggesting some protocols provide better protection than others in high infection-risk situations. This study investigated associations between veterinarians' vaccination recommendations and hospital remoteness, socioeconomic disadvantage, CPV caseload, and veterinarian perceptions and demographics. A national Australian veterinary survey in 2017 received 569 practitioner responses from 534 unique hospitals (23.6 % response rate). Respondents from major city hospitals had the lowest perceptions of the national CPV caseload (p < 0.0001). Those from hospitals with mild to moderate caseloads (6-40 cases per annum) recommended more frequent puppy revaccination - which is considered more protective - than those with the highest caseload (p = 0.0098), which might increase vaccination failure risk. Respondents from the most socioeconomically disadvantaged regions were over-represented in recommending annual revaccination of adult dogs; those from the least disadvantaged regions were over-represented in recommending triennial revaccination (p < 0.0001). Hospitals with higher CPV caseloads, greater socioeconomic disadvantage or increased remoteness did not favor two puppy vaccination protocols that are considered more protective (younger first vaccination age or older final vaccination age), despite these regions presenting higher CPV caseload risk. Titer testing to determine whether to revaccinate was more likely to be used in major city hospitals (p = 0.0052) and less disadvantaged areas (p = 0.0550). University of graduation was associated with CPV caseload, remoteness and level of socioeconomic disadvantage of the region where the graduate worked. University of graduation was significantly associated with age for final puppy vaccination and titer-testing recommendations. Graduates from one university were over-represented in recommending an earlier (10-week) finish protocol and titer testing, compared to all other universities. Year and university of graduation, and respondent's age were associated with a number of vaccination protocol recommendations suggesting that inherent biases might affect veterinarians' decisions. Emphasis on currently recommended vaccination protocols in undergraduate curricula and more protective vaccination protocol use in higher-risk regions could reduce immunization failure and CPV caseload.

The social networks of free-roaming domestic dogs in island communities in the Torres Strait, Australia.

Social structure creates heterogeneity of interactions between individuals, thus influencing infectious disease spread. The objective of this study was to describe and characterise the social structure of free-roaming dog populations in three communities in the Torres Strait, Australia. Dogs in Kubin, Saibai, and Warraber communities were collared with GPS units that recorded locations at 15 s intervals for up to 1 week, and datasets were obtained from 24 (62% of the dog population), 23 (53%) and 21 (51%) dogs in each community, respectively. An association (potential contact) between dogs was defined as proximity within a spatio-temporal window of 5 m for 30 s. Networks were constructed for each dog population: 1. nodes were individual dogs, and 2. edges were weighted according to the duration of spatio-temporal association between pairs of dogs as a proportion of their simultaneous time monitored. Network statistics were calculated for each population and the robustness of networks to the duration of association between pairs of dogs was assessed in terms of efficiency, degree distribution and fragmentation (number of components). Dog social networks had 'small-world' structures, with characteristic clustering and low average shortest-path length between individuals. Overall, all three networks were highly connected in terms of degree distribution and global and local efficiency, but the median tie strength (2-13.5 min) was low. Centrality and the duration of association (tie-strength) between dogs were significantly different between communities. The Kubin network was least robust to fragmentation when ties of short duration were successively removed (14 components with minimum tie strength of 2 h). In contrast, the Warraber dog network was relatively robust with 7 components at minimum tie strength of 2 h as well as high local efficiency within components. We conclude that whilst infectious disease that requires a short duration of contact for transmission is likely to spread rapidly between and within clusters in all three networks in this study, fragmentation of networks - once ties of short duration are removed - is likely to limit spread of disease that requires a longer duration of direct contact. The network information in this study is useful as a foundation for disease spread modelling and to investigate control strategies such as movement restrictions in dog populations.