Assessment of Oxidant and Antioxidant Status in Prepubertal Children following Vegetarian and Omnivorous Diets.

Oxidant-antioxidant balance is crucial for maintaining one's health, and the diet is possibly one of the most important factors affecting this balance. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the oxidant-antioxidant balance in children on a lacto-ovo-vegetarian diet. The study was conducted between January 2020 and December 2021. The concentrations of total oxidant capacity (TOC), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), reduced (GSH), and oxidized (GSSG) glutathione, as well as C-reactive protein (CRP) and calprotectin were measured in serum samples of 72 healthy prepubertal children (32 vegetarians and 40 omnivores). The oxidative stress index (OSI) and the GSH/GSSG ratio (R-index) were calculated. Children on a vegetarian diet had significantly lower median values of TOC, GSH, and GSSG, and higher TAC compared with the omnivores. OSI was significantly lower in vegetarians, while R-index, as well as median values of CRP and calprotectin did not differ between both groups of children. Significant negative correlations were observed between TOC and TAC levels in the whole group of children and in vegetarians. GSH and GSSG levels correlated positively in the groups of vegetarians, omnivores, and in all the children. There were significant positive correlations between TOC and GSH, as well as GSSG levels in all the studied groups of children. Our study results suggest that the vegetarian model of nutrition allows to maintain the oxidant-antioxidant balance in the serum of prepubertal children.

Position statement of the Polish Academy of Sciences Committee Human Nutrition Science on the principles for the nutrition of children aged 1-3 years.

The Position Statement on the principles of nutrition for children aged 1-3 years emphasizes that proper nutrition of children at this age determines their optimal psychometric development and has beneficial effects on the process nutritional programming, which reduces the risk of diet-related diseases in adulthood. Continued breastfeeding in the post-infancy period, together with the proper introduction of complementary foods, supplies all the nutritional needs of the child. A varied selection of food products is important to balance out the diet of a child in the context of energy and nutrient needs. Attention should be paid to products not recommended for frequent consumption, due to the possibility of the early development of improper eating habits that can lead to undesirable health consequences. Due to the potential risk of deficiency, adequate intake of iron, iodine, calcium and vitamin D, as well as of n-3 PUFAs (which is often insufficient) should be provided. Adequate dietary energy and protein intake protects children against protein-energy undernutrition and is crucial for their proper growth and development. An important element in the assessment of the development of children involves monitoring their nutritional status and physical development by systematically measuring their body weight and length/height and analyzing their weight gain. It is necessary to diagnose the causes of being underweight/overweight in children. Physical activity (such as outdoor walks, plays, and games) and healthy sleep hygiene are recommended. Physical activity, an adequate number of hours of sleep, and the quality of sleep in early childhood may improve immunity, reduce the risk of excessive weight gain, and consequently reduce the risk of obesity later in life. Other issues discussed include the functioning of the digestive system as one of the determinants of the nutrition of young children, basics of proper nutrition, risk of nutrient deficiencies and development of proper eating habits in early childhood.

Associations Between Antioxidant Vitamin Status, Dietary Intake, and Retinol-binding Protein 4 Levels in Prepubertal Obese Children After 3-month Weight Loss Therapy

Objective: Adiposity is associated with increased oxidative stress, leading to changed fat-soluble vitamin concentrations. The aim of this study was to determine whether weight loss alters fat-soluble vitamin status and whether these alterations are associated with dietary intake, anthropometric parameters and adipokines in obese children. Methods: Vitamin A and E concentrations were measured using high-pressure liquid chromatography in 60 obese children before and after weight loss therapy. Retinol-binding protein 4 (RBP4), leptin, soluble leptin receptor (sOB-R), and high molecular weight adiponectin concentrations were determined by immunoenzymatic assays. Results: The intake of vitamin E was lower in obese children with weight loss after therapy (p=0.038). In this group, an increase was found in the vitamin A/lipids (p=0.022) and the vitamin E/lipids (p=0.008) ratios but due to the reduction in triglyceride levels. In the obese group, changes in vitamin E level were positively correlated with changes in dietary vitamin E (p=0.017) and the leptin/sOB-R ratio (p=0.046). Changes in vitamin A level were positively correlated with changes in dietary vitamin A (p=0.001) and RBP4 concentration (p=0.023). Associations between changes in RBP4 level with the changes in body mass index (BMI) (p=0.011) and total cholesterol concentration (p=0.023) but not with changes in vitamin A concentration were found in the obese after therapy. Conclusion: An increased risk of vitamin E deficiency may occur in children losing weight during lifestyle intervention. Changes in BMI value may influence changes in RBP4 concentrations and consequently the vitamin A status in obese children after therapy.

Serum Calprotectin and Chemerin Concentrations as Markers of Low-Grade Inflammation in Prepubertal Children with Obesity.

In adults, obesity is associated with chronic low-grade inflammation, which may cause long-term adverse health consequences. We evaluated whether obesity in prepubertal children also generates this kind of inflammation and whether calprotectin and chemerin may be useful markers for early detection of such inflammation in this group of children. The study population included 83 children aged 2 to 10 years; 62 with obesity and without components of metabolic syndrome and 21 healthy controls with normal body weight. White blood cell (WBC) count, concentrations of C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), calprotectin, and chemerin were determined in peripheral blood. Our study showed that in the group with obesity, serum concentrations of calprotectin and chemerin, as well as CRP were significantly higher as compared with the controls. We found a significant positive correlation between serum chemerin concentrations and BMI z-score (r = 0.33, p < 0.01) in children with obesity. Chemerin concentration was also positively correlated with CRP level (r = 0.36, p < 0.01) in the whole group of children. These findings suggest that obesity may generate chronic low-grade inflammation as early as in the prepubertal period which can be indicated by significantly higher serum concentrations of calprotectin and chemerin. Calprotectin and especially chemerin seem to be promising indicators of this type of inflammation in children with obesity, but the correlation between these markers requires further research.

Are Omentin Rs2274907 and Vaspin Rs2236242 Gene Polymorphisms Related to Body Composition, Lipid Profile and Other Adipokines in Prepubertal Healthy Children?

Purpose/Aim: So far no research concerning the omentin-1 (ITLN1) rs2274907 and vaspin (SERPINA12) rs2236242 polymorphisms has been carried out in a healthy pediatric population. We analyzed associations of these polymorphisms with anthropometric parameters, lipid profile, as well as adiponectin, leptin and soluble leptin receptor (sOB-R) levels in prepubertal healthy children, to search for their possible role in the risk of obesity and obesity-related disorders.Materials and Methods: Frequencies of these polymorphisms were analyzed by the restriction fragment length polymorphism in 89 normal-weight children. The body composition was measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Serum levels of adipokines were measured using ELISA methods.Results: We observed differences in values of HDL-cholesterol (p = 0.002) and triglycerides (p = 0.039) in children carrying different genotypes of the ITLN1 rs2274907 polymorphism. In children carrying different genotypes of the SERPINA12 rs2236242 polymorphism differences in BMI (p =0.025) and BMI Z-score (p = 0.01) values were found. Significant relations between anthropometric parameters and levels of HDL-cholesterol and triglycerides were associated with minor alleles of the studied polymorphisms. In addition, leptin/sOB-R ratio was related to HDL-cholesterol (p = 0.004) and triglycerides (p = 0.03) levels in children carrying minor allele of the SERPINA12 rs2236242 SNP.Conclusions: We suggest that both ITLN1 rs2274907 and SERPINA12 rs2236242 polymorphisms influence body composition and lipid profile in prepubertal healthy children. Relations between anthropometric parameters, lipid and adipokine levels may be associated with minor alleles of the studied polymorphisms. The possible role of these polymorphisms in the modulation of the risk of obesity and obesity-related disorders in the later life might be considered.

Dietary Patterns of Children Aged 1-3 Years in Poland in Two Population Studies.

BACKGROUND: The levels of nutrition that children receive in their first years of life greatly determine their psychosomatic development. AIM: The study was to identify dietary patterns of children aged 1-3 years based on data on food consumption structure from 2 population studies performed in Poland (2011 and 2016) and to assess changes in product selection in the children's diets with respect to their nutritional status. METHODS: Both studies were performed on nationwide representative samples (2011: n = 400; 2016: n = 612) using questionnaire surveys. Nutritional status was estimated using body weight-to-height z-score. Feeding practices were evaluated based on 3-day dietary/food records, including 1 weekend day. RESULTS: Four dietary patterns of toddlers were identified and changes in the distribution of these patterns in the population after 5 years were analysed and compared. Diets of children in the second year of life were better balanced in terms of energy and nutritional value owing to young child formula content. Diets of children in the third year of life were higher in energy and protein, with a higher percentage of energy derived from saccharose. Diets of all groups of children were deficient in long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamin D and potassium but excessive in sodium. CONCLUSIONS: Over 5 years, the percentage of children on a diet with high intake of formula for young children significantly decreased but increased on a diet with high dairy content. Dietary patterns of toddlers were associated with their weight by height z score and nutrient profile.

Changes in Oxidized Low-Density Lipoprotein Rather Than in Paraoxonase1 are Associated with Changes in the Leptin/Leptin Receptor Ratio in Obese Children During Weight-Loss Therapy.

BACKGROUND: Oxidative stress and impaired production of adipokines in childhood obesity contribute to the development of obesity-related disorders. We assessed whether weight loss after lifestyle intervention alters biomarkers of oxidant/antioxidant status, and whether these alterations are associated with changes in anthropometric parameters and adipokines in obese children. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We determined oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL), anti ox-LDL, paraoxonase1 (PON1), leptin, soluble leptin receptor (sOB-R), total adiponectin, high molecular weight adiponectin concentrations and body composition (by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry) in 60 prepubertal obese children (Body Mass Index, BMI Z-score>2) before and after a 3-month intervention. The control group consisted of 44 non-obese children (BMI Z-score<-1+1>). RESULTS: Ox-LDL, ox-LDL/LDL, and anti ox-LDL concentrations as well as leptin to sOb-R ratio were reduced (p<0.001; p=0.018; p<0.001; p<0.001, respectively) in obese children with weight loss (BMI Z-score change≤-0.5) after a 3-month therapy. These parameters were stable in the obese group without weight loss (BMI Z-score change>-0.5). Changes in ox-LDL and PON1 levels in all obese children correlated positively with changes in the leptin to sOB-R ratio (r=0.400, p=0.002; r=0.304, p=0.028, respectively). After adjustment for changes in BMI Z-score in the multivariate regression model, the association between the changes in ox-LDL levels and changes in the leptin/sOb-R ratio remained statistically significant (ß=0.184, p=0.014). CONCLUSIONS: We found out that a 3-month lifestyle intervention associated with weight loss improves the oxidant/antioxidant balance and promotes anti-atherogenic changes in prepubertal obese children in a way dependent on the alterations in the leptin to sOB-R ratio.

Ferroportin-Hepcidin Axis in Prepubertal Obese Children with Sufficient Daily Iron Intake.

Iron metabolism may be disrupted in obesity, therefore, the present study assessed the iron status, especially ferroportin and hepcidin concentrations, as well as associations between the ferroportin-hepcidin axis and other iron markers in prepubertal obese children. The following were determined: serum ferroportin, hepcidin, ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR), iron concentrations and values of hematological parameters as well as the daily dietary intake in 40 obese and 40 normal-weight children. The ferroportin/hepcidin and ferritin/hepcidin ratios were almost two-fold lower in obese children (p = 0.001; p = 0.026, respectively). Similar iron concentrations (13.2 vs. 15.2 µmol/L, p = 0.324), the sTfR/ferritin index (0.033 vs. 0.041, p = 0.384) and values of hematological parameters were found in obese and control groups, respectively. Iron daily intake in the obese children examined was consistent with recommendations. In this group, the ferroportin/hepcidin ratio positively correlated with energy intake (p = 0.012), dietary iron (p = 0.003) and vitamin B12 (p = 0.024). In the multivariate regression model an association between the ferroportin/hepcidin ratio and the sTfR/ferritin index in obese children (ß = 0.399, p = 0.017) was found. These associations did not exist in the controls. The results obtained suggest that in obese children with sufficient iron intake, the altered ferroportin-hepcidin axis may occur without signs of iron deficiency or iron deficiency anemia. The role of other micronutrients, besides dietary iron, may also be considered in the iron status of these children.

Maternal Nutrition and Body Composition During Breastfeeding: Association with Human Milk Composition.

The composition of human milk is dynamic and can vary according to many maternal factors, such as diet and nutritional status. This study investigated the association of maternal nutrition and body composition with human milk composition. All measurements and analyses were done at three time points: during the first (n = 40), third (n = 22), and sixth (n = 15) month of lactation. Human milk was analyzed using the Miris human milk analyzer (HMA), body composition was measured with bioelectrical bioimpedance (BIA) using a Maltron BioScan 920-II, and the assessment of women's nutrition was based on a three-day dietary record. The correlation coefficient (Pearson's r) did not show a significant statistical relationship between human milk composition and nutrients in women's diet at three time points. For women in the third month postpartum, we observed moderate to strong significant correlations (r ranged from 0.47 to 0.64) between total protein content in milk and the majority of body composition measures as follows: positive correlations: % fat mass (r = 0.60; p = 0.003), fat-free mass expressed in kg (r = 0.63; p = 0.001), and muscle mass (r = 0.47; p = 0.027); and negative correlation: % total body water (r = -0.60; p = 0.003). The variance in milk fat content was related to the body mass index (BMI), with a significant positive correlation in the first month postpartum (r = 0.33; p = 0.048). These findings suggest that it is not diet, but rather the maternal body composition that may be associated with the nutritional value of human milk.

Oxidative and Antioxidative Status of Children with Celiac Disease Treated with a Gluten Free-Diet.

AIMS: Oxidative stress is a factor involved in the pathogenesis of celiac disease (CD), possibly affecting the course of the disease and celiac-related complications. We assessed the intensity of oxidative processes and the efficiency of antioxidant defense in children with celiac disease. Methods. Group I (n = 32) consisted of children with CD treated with a gluten-free diet, and group II (n = 24) consisted of healthy children on a traditional diet. Antioxidative and oxidative status was assessed by measurement of serum total antioxidant capacity (TAC), total oxidant capacity (TOC), and oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL) and on the basis of oxidative stress index (OSI). RESULTS: There were no significant differences in serum TAC, TOC, ox-LDL, and OSI between children with CD and healthy children. Cluster analysis showed that the group of children with CD is not homogeneous in terms of serum TAC and TOC levels. About 50% of these children had TAC levels < 1.3 mmol/L and TOC levels > 0.35 mmol/L. CONCLUSIONS: Strict adherence to a gluten-free diet by children with CD seems to be important for maintaining oxidative-antioxidant balance. However, further research is needed to identify factors potentially responsible for increased oxidative stress in some children with celiac disease despite adherence to a gluten-free diet.

Correlation between human milk composition and maternal nutritional status

Background: Human milk is the optimal nutrition for newborns and infants during the first period of their life ­ from birth to 6-th month. It contains a uniquely quantitative and qualitative balanced nutrients profile. Composition of breast milk is dynamic and may vary according to maternal nutritional status. Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate associations between human milk composition and maternal nutritional status. Material and methods: One-day milk samples were provided by exclusively breastfeeding mothers (n=40) at the first month of lactation. Protein ­ total and true, fat, carbohydrate, dry matter and energy content were determined using the Human Milk Analyzer by MIRIS. The anthropometric measurements (current body weight, height) were used to calculate current body mass index (BMI). On this basis, we assessed nutritional status of examined population. Results: For the majority of women (75%, n=30) currently BMI value was in range of 18.5-24.9 kg/m2, for the rest of women it was ≥ 25 kg/m2. The median macronutrient composition per 100 ml of mature breast milk was 7.0 g for carbohydrate, 1.1 g for protein, 3.5 g for fat, 11.9 for dry matter and energy content was 66.0 kcal. Maternal body mass index was positively related to lipid, dry matter and energy breast milk content (p<0.05). Conclusions: The majority of examined women in the first month of lactation was in normal state of nutrition. For the rest of women BMI values indicated for overweight. Our results confirm correlation between human milk composition and maternal nutritional status, especially in matters of energy value and fat content in human milk.

The effect of weight loss on body composition, serum bone markers, and adipokines in prepubertal obese children after 1-year intervention.

Purpose/Aim: The influence of weight loss on bone turnover and bone quality in childhood remains controversial, but it may implicate interactions between adiposity and bone metabolism. Therefore, we studied the relationships between bone markers and adipokines during weight loss in obese children. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We determined serum leptin, soluble leptin receptor, adiponectin, bone alkaline phosphatase (BALP), C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen (CTX-I), osteocalcin (OC), carboxylated-OC (Gla-OC), undercarboxylated-OC (Glu-OC), sclerostin, body composition, and bone mineral density (BMD) in 40 obese prepubertal children before and after therapy. The control group, matched for sex and age, consisted of 40 non-obese children. RESULTS: We found that values of the total body less head-bone mineral content (TBLH-BMC) and TBLH-BMD were significantly increased, but TBLH-BMD Z-score was decreased by 25% (p = 0.002) in obese children with weight loss after therapy. We observed increases of CTX-I to OC ratio (p = 0.009), and Gla-OC concentrations (p = 0.049). Changes in TBLH-BMD Z-score in patients were positively correlated with changes in BMI Z-score (p = 0.001), percentage of fat mass (p = 0.004), and BALP activity (p = 0.01). Changes in BALP activity were negatively correlated (p < 0.001) with changes in adiponectin concentrations, while changes in sclerostin levels were positively correlated (p = 0.001) with leptin changes. CONCLUSIONS: We suggest that alterations in adipokines metabolism were associated with a lower rate of bone mineral accrual as a result of decreased bone formation rather than increased bone resorption. The lower rate of bone mass accrual in weight losing children may be an effect of reduced BALP levels related to increase in adiponectin levels.

Nutritional value of daily food rations of overweight and normal weight pregnant women

Background: Adequate nutrition and nutritional status during pregnancy are essential for mother's health and foetus development. Due to increased demands, pregnant women are vulnerable to inadequate nutritional status and paradoxically it may also affect overweight women Objective: The aim of the study was to evaluate energy and nutrients intake in the group of pregnant women in relation to nutritional standards and pre-pregnancy BMI Material and methods: The study included 90 women, during the third trimester of pregnancy, recruited from Warsaw antenatal classes. The anthropometric data gathered in the research were used to calculate BMI value before pregnancy. Pre-pregnancy BMI was categorised as: normal weight (BMI=18.5-24.9 kg/m2, n=47) and overweight (BMI ≥25.0 kg/m2, n=43). The assessment of women's nutrition was based on 3-days dietary record. Due to heterogeneous variances, differences between groups were assessed using Mann Whitney U test, p<0.05 was considered as significant Results: The mean intake of energy, protein, fat and carbohydrates in the overweight women were significantly higher than in healthy weight women (p<0.05). Most of the healthy weight women did not reach EAR standard for vitamin D (79.5%), whereas in overweight group it was 41.3% Conclusions: Despite the fact that intakes of energy and all nutrients were higher in overweight women than in normal weight ones, we observed that women in both groups had risk of insufficient supply of energy, iodine, potassium and vitamin D. For this reason, accurate nutritional assessment should be an integral part of obstetric care

Relations between oxidized low-density lipoproteins and fat-soluble vitamin concentrations in obese children - preliminary study.

INTRODUCTION: Although lipid peroxidation products are formed during normal cell metabolism, they appear mostly in pathological conditions via producing an excess of free radicals that can react with unsaturated fatty acids, in particular low-density lipoprotein (LDL). The aim of this study was to investigate the relations between oxidized LDL (oxLDL), the fat-soluble vitamin status and the anthropometric parameters in prepubertal obese children. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Thirty-two obese (SDS-BMI >2) and 25 non-obese children (SDS-BMI <-1+1>) were included in the study. The concentration of oxLDL was determined in the serum by the ELISA assay. Vitamin A and E were measured by the high-pressure liquid chromatography method. Total cholesterol, LDL- and HDL-cholesterol, and triglyceride levels were determined by enzymatic methods. RESULTS: The concentrations of oxLDL and vitamin A were higher in obese children than in normalweight controls by about 50% (p=0.01) and 40% (p=0.001), respectively. In obese children the significant positive correlation was found between oxLDL and vitamin A concentrations (<0.05). In addition, oxLDL correlated positively with BMI values (<0.05) and the amount of fat mass (kg) (<0.02) in these patients. Concentrations of vitamins A and E correlated with the level of total cholesterol (<0.05; <0.01, respectively).Moreover, a positive correlation between vitamin E and LDL-cholesterol was observed (<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Our preliminary study shows that oxLDL starts early during the prepubertal period and may precede atherosclerotic lesions. We suggest there is an occurrence of relationships between vitamin A and oxidized LDL in prepubertal obese children. Vitamin A and E concentrations are also associated with dyslipidemia in these patients.

Dietary patterns in toddlers with excess weight. The 2016 pitnuts study.

INTRODUCTION: Children's appropriate dietary pattern determines their optimal development, reduces the risk of childhood diseases and the risk of diet-dependent diseases, including obesity in adulthood. AIM: To analyze the dietary patterns of children with excess weight aged 1-3 years in comparison with the main components of the safe nutrition model including: the organization of meals (frequency of meals), selection of products (food intake), energy and nutritional value of children's diets. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study was carried out in 2016 on a representative nationwide sample of children aged 5-36 months (n=1059). The analysis of dietary patterns covered 173 with excess weight children aged 13-36 months (BMI-z-score >1 SD). Their nutritional status was evaluated based on BMI and its standardisation according to the WHO reference child growth standards for children aged 0-5 years (BMI z-score). The diets of children were assessed using 3-day dietary records. The dietary patterns of the children who were analysed were determined using the cluster analysis (k-means method), including 11 variables concerning average daily intake of main food group products (cow's milk, junior formula, milk products, bread, groats and rice, cereals, cured meats, fats, sugar and sweets, fruits, nectars and juices). RESULTS: Three clusters of overweight and obese children with different dietary patterns were identified. The diet of children from the first cluster (n=58) was based primarily on junior formula and foods for infants and toddlers. This dietary pattern was defined as the "baby food diet". The second cluster comprised 33 children whose diets were characterised by high consumption of cow's milk and dairy products, as well as cereal products, including bread, groats, rice and breakfast cereals. This dietary pattern was defined the "milk and cereals diet". The third cluster consisted of 82 children whose dietary pattern was characterised by high consumption of bread, cold meats and fats, sweets, juices and fruits (the "sandwich and sugar diet"). In all the clusters the average intake of vegetables and fruit by children with excess weight was significantly lower than the recommended amounts. The study showed too high intake of energy, protein, sodium, B vitamins and saccharose and an insufficient supply of calcium, fibre, vitamin D, vitamin E, LCPUFA, iodine and potassium in the children's diet in reference to nutritional recommendations. Younger children with the "baby food diet" pattern, due to the contribution of enriched food, had a more balanced diet in relation to the model of safe nutrition (nutritional norms). Older children's diets - in the third year of life, were characterized by a diversified choice of products that are a source of protein and carbohydrates (milk, breakfast cereals, meat, bread, cold meats, sugar from beverages, dairy desserts and juices). CONCLUSION: The identified dietary patterns of toddlers with excess weight differ from the safe nutrition model in terms of product selection and nutrient profile.

Total Oxidant and Antioxidant Status in Prepubertal Children with Obesity.

AIMS: Obesity is accompanied by the formation of oxygen free radicals, whose intensified activity without effective defense mechanisms can lead to oxidative stress and related complications. We evaluated the presence of oxidative stress in obese prepubertal children. METHODS: The study included 83 healthy children aged 2-10 years (62 with obesity and 21 nonobese controls). Total oxidant capacity (TOC), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL), lipid parameters, glucose, and C-reactive protein (CRP) were measured in serum. Oxidative stress index (OSI) was calculated. RESULTS: Serum TOC concentration was significantly higher (p < 0.05) and TAC concentration was lower (p < 0.05) in obese children. OSI was higher (p < 0.01) in obese subjects compared with controls. CRP levels were normal in all children, but median CRP value was higher (p < 0.01) and HDL cholesterol levels were lower (p < 0.05) in the obese group. We found a significant negative correlation between TAC and ox-LDL concentrations (r = -0.27, p < 0.05) in obese children. Furthermore, obesity duration was positively correlated with TOC level (r = 0.32, p < 0.05) in this group. CONCLUSIONS: Obesity-related oxidative stress already occurs in prepubescence. Early obesity diagnosis and the necessary therapeutic activity implementation is a vital strategy for the prophylaxis of free radical damage and related multiorgan complications.

Nutrition of infants and young children in Poland - Pitnuts 2016.

The study evaluating the feeding practices and the nutritional status of children aged 5 to 36 months in a general, Polish, representative population (n=1059) was carried out from May to July 2016. The aim of this study was to evaluate the feeding practices in children aged 5 to 36 months with regard to models of safe nutrition on the basis of the outcome of the population study performed in 2016. The data obtained show that the feeding practices in children in their first year of life do not meet the guidelines presented in the model of safe nutrition, particularly in matters of timing of complementary feeding introduction and food choice. The analysis of nutrient profile in toddlers' diets indicated the differentiated energy and protein intake is significantly higher than population norms (EAR/AI). It is necessary to modify the nutrition of infants and young children through a better selection of products. Nutritional practice should always be monitored and modified according to the model of safe nutrition as part of medical nutritional counselling. More educational efforts are required to increase the awareness of the relation between the diet and nutritional status of young children among healthcare professionals.

Nutrition during breastfeeding - impact on human milk composition.

Breastfeeding or breast milk feeding is a gold standard of feeding of newborns and infants. According to the guidelines of the World Health Organisation exclusive feeding with breast milk should be applied until the end of 6 months of age and should be continued during subsequent months with simultaneous introduction of supplementary food. Composition of breast milk varies and the composition of individual nutrients is affected by, among others, the diet of a breastfeeding mother. The paper aimed to present a literature review in order to assess a correlation between the mother's diet and breast milk composition. It has been observed that nutrients with the greatest correlation between their levels in human milk and their levels in the mother's diet include polyunsaturated fatty acids, especially DHA; however, no correlation was observed for mineral elements, mainly trace elements (zinc, chromium and iron).

Gluten-containing products in the diet of infants in nutritional recommendations - a retrospective view and conclusions for the future.

The discussion on the optimal timing of the introduction of gluten products and their quantity into the diet of infants in order to reduce the risk of the development of undesirable reactions to gluten, including celiac disease, has been going on for years. The aim of this study was to present how the relevant Polish nutritional recommendations in this regard had changed over the last fifty years.