A positive feedback inhibition of isocitrate dehydrogenase 3ß on paired-box gene 6 promotes Alzheimer-like pathology.

Impaired brain glucose metabolism is an early indicator of Alzheimer's disease (AD); however, the fundamental mechanism is unknown. In this study, we found a substantial decline in isocitrate dehydrogenase 3ß (IDH3ß) levels, a critical tricarboxylic acid cycle enzyme, in AD patients and AD-transgenic mice's brains. Further investigations demonstrated that the knockdown of IDH3ß induced oxidation-phosphorylation uncoupling, leading to reduced energy metabolism and lactate accumulation. The resulting increased lactate, a source of lactyl, was found to promote histone lactylation, thereby enhancing the expression of paired-box gene 6 (PAX6). As an inhibitory transcription factor of IDH3ß, the elevated PAX6 in turn inhibited the expression of IDH3ß, leading to tau hyperphosphorylation, synapse impairment, and learning and memory deficits resembling those seen in AD. In AD-transgenic mice, upregulating IDH3ß and downregulating PAX6 were found to improve cognitive functioning and reverse AD-like pathologies. Collectively, our data suggest that impaired oxidative phosphorylation accelerates AD progression via a positive feedback inhibition loop of IDH3ß-lactate-PAX6-IDH3ß. Breaking this loop by upregulating IDH3ß or downregulating PAX6 attenuates AD neurodegeneration and cognitive impairments.

Homocysteine-potentiated Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 promotes senescence of neuroblastoma 2a cells via inhibiting ubiquitination of ß-catenin.

Elevated serum homocysteine (Hcy) level is a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and accelerates cell aging. However, the mechanism by which Hcy induces neuronal senescence remains largely unknown. In this study, we observed that Hcy significantly promoted senescence in neuroblastoma 2a (N2a) cells with elevated ß-catenin and Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (KEAP1) levels. Intriguingly, Hcy promoted the interaction between KEAP1 and the Wilms tumor gene on the X chromosome (WTX) while hampering the ß-catenin-WTX interaction. Mechanistically, Hcy attenuated the methylation level of the KEAP1 promoter CpG island and activated KEAP1 transcription. However, a slow degradation rate rather than transcriptional activation contributed to the high level of ß-catenin. Hcy-upregulated KEAP1 competed with ß-catenin to bind to WTX. Knockdown of both ß-catenin and KEAP1 attenuated Hcy-induced senescence in N2a cells. Our data highlight a crucial role of the KEAP1-ß-catenin pathway in Hcy-induced neuronal-like senescence and uncover a promising target for AD treatment.

N6-methyladenosine-modified circRIMS2 mediates synaptic and memory impairments by activating GluN2B ubiquitination in Alzheimer's disease.

BACKGROUND: Synaptic degeneration occurs in the early stage of Alzheimer's disease (AD) before devastating symptoms, strongly correlated with cognitive decline. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are abundantly enriched in neural tissues, and aberrant expression of circRNAs precedes AD symptoms, significantly correlated with clinical dementia severity. However, the direct relationship between circRNA dysregulation and synaptic impairment in the early stage of AD remains poorly understood. METHODS: Hippocampal whole-transcriptome sequencing was performed to identify dysregulated circRNAs and miRNAs in 4-month-old wild-type and APP/PS1 mice. RNA antisense purification and mass spectrometry were utilized to unveil interactions between circRIMS2 and methyltransferase 3, N6-adenosine-methyltransferase complex catalytic subunit (METTL3). The roles of circRIMS2/miR-3968 in synaptic targeting of UBE2K-mediated ubiquitination of GluN2B subunit of NMDA receptor were evaluated via numerous lentiviruses followed by morphological staining, co-immunoprecipitation and behavioral testing. Further, a membrane-permeable peptide was used to block the ubiquitination of K1082 on GluN2B in AD mice. RESULTS: circRIMS2 was significantly upregulated in 4-month-old APP/PS1 mice, which was mediated by METTL3-dependent N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification. Overexpression of circRIMS2 led to synaptic and memory impairments in 4-month-old C57BL/6 mice. MiR-3968/UBE2K was validated as the downstream of circRIMS2. Elevated UBE2K induced synaptic dysfunction of AD through ubiquitinating K1082 on GluN2B. Silencing METTL3 or blocking the ubiquitination of K1082 on GluN2B with a short membrane-permeable peptide remarkably rescued synaptic dysfunction in AD mice. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, our study demonstrated that m6A-modified circRIMS2 mediates the synaptic and memory impairments in AD by activating the UBE2K-dependent ubiquitination and degradation of GluN2B via sponging miR-3968, providing novel therapeutic strategies for AD.

A novel transgenic mouse line with hippocampus-dominant and inducible expression of truncated human tau.

BACKGROUND: Intraneuronal accumulation of hyperphosphorylated tau is a defining hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, mouse models imitating AD-exclusive neuronal tau pathologies are lacking. METHODS: We generated a new tet-on transgenic mouse model expressing truncated human tau N1-368 (termed hTau368), a tau fragment increased in the brains of AD patients and aged mouse brains. Doxycycline (dox) was administered in drinking water to induce hTau368 expression. Immunostaining and Western blotting were performed to measure the tau level. RNA sequencing was performed to evaluate gene expression, and several behavioral tests were conducted to evaluate mouse cognitive functions, emotion and locomotion. RESULTS: Dox treatment for 1-2 months at a young age induced overt and reversible human tau accumulation in the brains of hTau368 transgenic mice, predominantly in the hippocampus. Meanwhile, the transgenic mice exhibited AD-like high level of tau phosphorylation, glial activation, loss of mature neurons, impaired hippocampal neurogenesis, synaptic degeneration and cognitive deficits. CONCLUSIONS: This study developed a well-characterized and easy-to-use tool for the investigations and drug development for AD and other tauopathies.

Targeting a vulnerable septum-hippocampus cholinergic circuit in a critical time window ameliorates tau-impaired memory consolidation.

BACKGROUND: Abnormal tau accumulation and cholinergic degeneration are hallmark pathologies in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the sensitivity of cholinergic neurons to AD-like tau accumulation and strategies to ameliorate tau-disrupted spatial memory in terms of neural circuits still remain elusive. METHODS: To investigate the effect and mechanism of the cholinergic circuit in Alzheimer's disease-related hippocampal memory, overexpression of human wild-type Tau (hTau) in medial septum (MS)-hippocampus (HP) cholinergic was achieved by specifically injecting pAAV-EF1α-DIO-hTau-eGFP virus into the MS of ChAT-Cre mice. Immunostaining, behavioral analysis and optogenetic activation experiments were used to detect the effect of hTau accumulation on cholinergic neurons and the MS-CA1 cholinergic circuit. Patch-clamp recordings and in vivo local field potential recordings were used to analyze the influence of hTau on the electrical signals of cholinergic neurons and the activity of cholinergic neural circuit networks. Optogenetic activation combined with cholinergic receptor blocker was used to detect the role of cholinergic receptors in spatial memory. RESULTS: In the present study, we found that cholinergic neurons with an asymmetric discharge characteristic in the MS-hippocampal CA1 pathway are vulnerable to tau accumulation. In addition to an inhibitory effect on neuronal excitability, theta synchronization between the MS and CA1 subsets was significantly disrupted during memory consolidation after overexpressing hTau in the MS. Photoactivating MS-CA1 cholinergic inputs within a critical 3 h time window during memory consolidation efficiently improved tau-induced spatial memory deficits in a theta rhythm-dependent manner. CONCLUSIONS: Our study not only reveals the vulnerability of a novel MS-CA1 cholinergic circuit to AD-like tau accumulation but also provides a rhythm- and time window-dependent strategy to target the MS-CA1 cholinergic circuit, thereby rescuing tau-induced spatial cognitive functions.

Single-cell RNA sequencing of CSF reveals neuroprotective RAC1+ NK cells in Parkinson's disease.

Brain infiltration of the natural killer (NK) cells has been observed in several neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson's disease (PD). In a mouse model of α-synucleinopathy, it has been shown that NK cells help in clearing α-synuclein (α-syn) aggregates. This study aimed to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying the brain infiltration of NK cells in PD. Immunofluorescence assay was performed using the anti-NKp46 antibody to detect NK cells in the brain of PD model mice. Next, we analyzed the publicly available single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) data (GSE141578) of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from patients with PD to characterize the CSF immune landscape in PD. Results showed that NK cells infiltrate the substantia nigra (SN) of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced PD model mice and colocalize with dopaminergic neurons and α-syn. Moreover, the ratio of NK cells was found to be increased in the CSF of PD patients. Analysis of the scRNA-seq data revealed that Rac family small GTPase 1 (RAC1) was the most significantly upregulated gene in NK cells from PD patients. Furthermore, genes involved in regulating SN development were enriched in RAC1+ NK cells and these cells showed increased brain infiltration in MPTP-induced PD mice. In conclusion, NK cells actively home to the SN of PD model mice and RAC1 might be involved in regulating this process. Moreover, RAC1+ NK cells play a neuroprotective role in PD.

Distinct microglia alternative splicing in Alzheimer's disease.

Numerous alternative splicing (AS) events have been documented in Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, cell type-specific AS analysis is still lacking. We described AS events in the hippocampal microglia sorted by CD45 and CD11b from Aß precursor protein (APP) and non-transgenic (Ntg) mice. GSE171195 dataset was downloaded from GEO database, aligned to GRCm39 genome. Skipped exon (SE), alternative 3'SS (A3SS), retained intron (RI), alternative 5'SS (A5SS), and mutually exclusive exons (MXE) were evaluated using rMATS and maser. Differential expressed genes or transcripts were analyzed via limma. Gene ontology and correlation analyses were performed with clusterProfiler and ggcorrplot R packages. 36,340 raw counts of AS were identified, and 95 significant AS events were eventually selected with strict criteria: (1) average coverage >5; (2) delta percent spliced in >0.1. SE was the most common AS events (68.42%), followed by A3SS and RI. Autophagy genes were mainly spliced in SE events, actin depolymerization genes spliced in A3SS events, while synaptic plasticity related genes were mainly spliced in RI pattern. These significant AS events may be regulated by dysregulated splicing factors in AD. In conclusion, we revealed microglia specific AS events in AD, and our study provides novel pathological mechanisms in the pathogenesis of AD.

P301S-hTau acetylates KEAP1 to trigger synaptic toxicity via inhibiting NRF2/ARE pathway: A novel mechanism underlying hTau-induced synaptic toxicities.

BACKGROUND: Human Tau (hTau) accumulation and synapse loss are two pathological hallmarks of tauopathies. However, whether and how hTau exerts toxic effects on synapses remain elusive. METHODS: Mutated hTau (P301S) was overexpressed in the N2a cell line, primary hippocampal neurons and hippocampal CA3. Western blotting and quantitative polymerase chain reaction were applied to examine the protein and mRNA levels of synaptic proteins. The protein interaction was tested by co-immunoprecipitation and proximity ligation assays. Memory and emotion status were evaluated by a series of behavioural tests. The transcriptional activity of nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) was detected by dual luciferase reporter assay. Electrophoresis mobility shift assay and chromosome immunoprecipitation were conducted to examine the combination of NRF2 to specific anti-oxidative response element (ARE) sequences. Neuronal morphology was analysed after Golgi staining. RESULTS: Overexpressing P301S decreased the protein levels of post-synaptic density protein 93 (PSD93), PSD95 and synapsin 1 (SYN1). Simultaneously, NRF2 was decreased, whereas Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (KEAP1) was elevated. Further, we found that NRF2 could bind to the specific AREs of DLG2, DLG4 and SYN1 genes, which encode PSD93, PSD95 and SYN1, respectively, to promote their expression. Overexpressing NRF2 ameliorated P301S-reduced synaptic proteins and synapse. By means of acetylation at K312, P301S increased the protein level of KEAP1 via inhibiting KEAP1 degradation from ubiquitin-proteasome pathway, thereby decreasing NRF2 and reducing synapse. Blocking the P301S-KEAP1 interaction at K312 rescued the P301S-suppressed expression of synaptic proteins and memory deficits with anxiety efficiently. CONCLUSIONS: P301S-hTau could acetylate KEAP1 to trigger synaptic toxicity via inhibiting the NRF2/ARE pathway. These findings provide a novel and potential target for the therapeutic intervention of tauopathies.

Ontology Specific Alternative Splicing Changes in Alzheimer's Disease.

Alternative splicing (AS) is a common phenomenon and correlates with aging and aging-related disorders including Alzheimer's disease (AD). We aimed to systematically characterize AS changes in the cerebral cortex of 9-month-old APP/PS1 mice. The GSE132177 dataset was downloaded from GEO and ENA databases, aligned to the GRCm39 reference genome from ENSEMBL via STAR. Alternative 3'SS (A3SS), alternative 5'SS (A5SS), skipped exon (SE), retained intron (RI), and mutually exclusive exons (MXE) AS events were evaluated using rMATS, rmats2sashimiplot, and maser. Differential genes or transcripts were analyzed using the limma R package. Gene ontology analysis was performed with the clusterProfiler R package. A total of 60,705 raw counts of AS were identified, and 113 significant AS events were finally selected in accordance with the selection criteria: 1) average coverage >10 and 2) delta percent spliced in (ΔPSI) >0.1. SE was the most abundant AS event (61.95%), and RI was the second most abundant AS type (13.27%), followed by A3SS (12.39%), thereafter A5SS and MXE comprised of 12.39%. Interestingly, genes that experienced SE were enriched in histone acetyltransferase (HAT) complex, while genes spliced by RI were enriched in autophagy and those which experienced A3SS were enriched in methyltransferase activity revealed by GO analysis. In conclusion, we revealed ontology specific AS changes in AD. Our analysis provides novel pathological mechanisms of AD.

Comparison of cognitive impairments with lipid profiles and inflammatory biomarkers in unipolar and bipolar depression.

Cognitive impairments is one of important accompanied symptom in Unipolar depressive disorder (UD) and bipolar disorder (BD) that was hard to distinguish, as their diagnosis is based on behavioural observations and subjective symptoms. In this study, we could highlight the difference of cognitive ability in UD and BD by testing lipid profiles and inflammatory biomarkers in major depressive episodes (MDE). 207 subjects (96 unipolar and 111 bipolar depressed patients) were included in this study. We applied Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) to test cognitive ability. The 24-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale was used for assessment at the beginning of treatment. A series of clinical variables and lipid profiles were collected from clinic record. We detected pro-inflammatory biomarkers Interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß), Interleukin-6 (IL-6), C-reaction protein (CRP) levels and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. From the results, cognitive impairments were more popular in BD than UD, most obviously in severe cognitive impairments (MoCA score<23). And UD showed better cognitive ability than BD in MoCA, particularly in language domain. Compared lipid profiles like total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), apolipoprotein A1 (ApoA1), Apolipoprotein B (ApoB) and lipoprotein α (Lpα), we found that ApoB was higher in BD than UD that maybe a risk factor in cognition. There was no obviously difference in TC, TG, HDL-C, LDL-C, ApoA1, or Lpα. Also, we found CRP level in BD was higher than UD, and showed no significant difference in IL-1ß and IL-6 levels. Furthermore, BDNF level which was neurotrophic biomarker for cognition and mood was significantly declined in BD compared with UD. Correlation analysis showed that ApoB and CRP was negative closed associated with MoCA scores. And BDNF level was positive related with cognitive ability in MDE patients. From our results mentioned that quantitative lipid profiles and inflammatory biomarkers analysis might help to objectively identify between these disorders and up our understanding of their pathophysiology. And ApoB, CRP and BDNF could be as potential peripheral candidates in cognitive evaluation to distinguish UD and BD.

Erratum to: Protein Phosphatase 2A as a Drug Target in the Treatment of Cancer and Alzheimer's Disease.

The article "Protein Phosphatase 2A as a Drug Target in the Treatment of Cancer and Alzheimer's Disease", written by Hui WEI, Hui-liang ZHANG, Jia-zhao XIE, Dong-li MENG, Xiao-chuan WANG, Dan KE, Ji ZENG, Rong LIU, was originally published electronically on the publisher's internet portal on 13 March 2020 without open access. With the author(s)' decision to opt for Open Choice the copyright of the article changed to © The Author(s) 2020 and the article is forthwith distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.The original article has been corrected.Corresponding authors: Dan KE, E-mail: kedan@hust.edu.cn; Ji ZENG, E-mail: whzjmicro@163.com.

Protein Phosphatase 2A as a Drug Target in the Treatment of Cancer and Alzheimer's Disease.

Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is a major serine/threonine phosphatase which participates in the regulation of multiple cellular processes. As a confirmed tumor suppressor, PP2A activity is downregulated in tumors and its re-activation can induce apoptosis of cancer cells. In the brains of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients, decreased PP2A activity also plays a key role in promoting tau hyperphosphorylation and Aß generation. In this review, we discussed compounds aiming at modulating PP2A activity in the treatment of cancer or AD. The upstream factors that inactivate PP2A in diseases have not been fully elucidated and further studies are needed. It will help for the refinement and development of novel and clinically tractable PP2A-targeted compounds or therapies for the treatment of tumor and AD.

Direct Activation of Protein Phosphatase 2A (PP2A) by Tricyclic Sulfonamides Ameliorates Alzheimer's Disease Pathogenesis in Cell and Animal Models.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disease for which there are limited therapeutic strategies. Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) activity is decreased in AD brains, which promotes the hyperphosphorylation of Tau and APP, thus participate in the formation of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) and ß-amyloid (Aß) overproduction. In this study, the effect of synthetic tricyclic sulfonamide PP2A activators (aka SMAPs) on reducing AD-like pathogenesis was evaluated in AD cell models and AD-like hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy) rat models. SMAPs effectively increased PP2A activity, and decreased tau phosphorylation and Aß40/42 levels in AD cell models. In HHcy-AD rat models, cognitive impairments induced by HHcy were rescued by SMAP administration. HHcy-induced tau hyperphosphorylation and Aß overproduction were ameliorated through increasing PP2A activity on compound treatment. Importantly, SMAP therapy also prevented neuronal cell spine loss and neuronal synapse impairment in the hippocampus of HHcy-AD rats. In summary, our data reveal that pharmacological PP2A reactivation may be a novel therapeutic strategy for AD treatment, and that the tricyclic sulfonamides constitute a novel candidate class of AD therapeutic.

Sex difference in IL-6 modulation of cognition among Chinese individuals with major depressive disorder.

Cognitive dysfunction and pro-inflammatory effect has been associated with major depressive disorder (MDD), but sex differences have seldom been studied. The study was to determine the sex difference of cognitive dysfunction and pro-inflammatory biomarkers among patients with MDD in Chinese Han population. 104 MDD patients (male n = 37, female n = 67) were included in the study. Their sociodemographic and clinical features, including age, body mass index (BMI), education, smoking, alcohol use, illness characteristics and medicine use were recorded. Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) was used to assess cognition. And we detected pro-inflammatory biomarkers Interleakin-1ß (IL-1ß), Interleakin-6 (IL-6) and C-reaction protein (CRP) levels by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. We found that male patients showed higher scores than female in MoCA, and performed better than female patients particularly in visuaspatial, naming, attention, orientation subscale. CRP and IL-1ß levels showed no significant difference between male and female patients in MDD. However, Male's IL-6 level was significantly declined than female, negative closed associated with cognition in MOCA score. These results suggested that the difference in IL-6 could reflect a cognitive difference between male and female in MDD, and IL-6 elevation could represent a state indicator for cognitive ability particular in female MDD patients. And it maybe a biological treatment target in cognition dysfunction of female patients in MDD.

Liraglutide Ameliorates Hyperhomocysteinemia-Induced Alzheimer-Like Pathology and Memory Deficits in Rats via Multi-molecular Targeting.

Hyperhomocysteinemia (Hhcy) is an independent risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD), and insulin-resistance is commonly seen in patients with Hhcy. Liraglutide (Lir), a glucagon-like peptide that increases the secretion and sensitivity of insulin, has a neurotrophic or neuroprotective effect. However, it is not known whether Lir ameliorates the AD-like pathology and memory deficit induced by Hhcy. By vena caudalis injection of homocysteine to produce the Hhcy model in rats, we found here that simultaneous administration of Lir for 2 weeks ameliorated the Hhcy-induced memory deficit, along with increased density of dendritic spines and up-regulation of synaptic proteins. Lir also attenuated the Hhcy-induced tau hyperphosphorylation and Aß overproduction, and the molecular mechanisms involved the restoration of protein phosphatase-2A activity and inhibition of ß- and γ-secretases. Phosphorylated insulin receptor substrate-1 also decreased after treatment with Lir. Our data reveal that Lir improves the Hhcy-induced AD-like spatial memory deficit and the mechanisms involve the modulation of insulin-resistance and the pathways generating abnormal tau and Aß.

Activation of sirtuin 1 attenuates cerebral ventricular streptozotocin-induced tau hyperphosphorylation and cognitive injuries in rat hippocampi.

Patients with diabetes in the aging population are at high risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD), and reduction of sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) activity occurs simultaneously with the accumulation of hyperphosphorylated tau in the AD-affected brain. It is not clear, however, whether SIRT1 is a suitable molecular target for the treatment of AD. Here, we employed a rat model of brain insulin resistance with intracerebroventricular injection of streptozotocin (ICV-STZ; 3 mg/kg, twice with an interval of 48 h). The ICV-STZ-treated rats were administrated with resveratrol (RSV; SIRT1-specific activator) or a vehicle via intraperitoneal injection for 8 weeks (30 mg/kg, once per day). In ICV-STZ-treated rats, the levels of phosphorylated tau and phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) at the hippocampi were increased significantly, whereas SIRT1 activity was decreased without change of its expression level. The capacity of spatial memory was also significantly lower in ICV-STZ-treated rats compared with age-matched control. RSV, a specific activator of SIRT1, which reversed the ICV-STZ-induced decrease in SIRT1 activity, increases in ERK1/2 phosphorylation, tau phosphorylation, and impairment of cognitive capability in rats. In conclusion, SIRT1 protects hippocampus neurons from tau hyperphosphorylation and prevents cognitive impairment induced by ICV-STZ brain insulin resistance with decreased hippocampus ERK1/2 activity.

Capsaicin ameliorates stress-induced Alzheimer's disease-like pathological and cognitive impairments in rats.

Hyperphosphorylated tau aggregated into neurofibrillary tangles is a hallmark lesion of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and is linked to synaptic and cognitive impairments. In animal models, cold water stress (CWS) can cause cognitive disorder and tau hyperphosphorylation. Capsaicin (CAP), a specific TRPV1 agonist, is neuroprotective against stress-induced impairment, but the detailed mechanisms are still elusive. Here, we investigated whether CAP mitigates CWS-induced cognitive and AD-like pathological alterations in rats. The animals were administered CAP (10 mg/kg in 0.2 ml, 0.1% ethanol) or a control (0.2 ml normal saline, 0.1% ethanol) by intragastric infusion 1 h before CWS treatment. Our results showed that CAP significantly attenuated CWS-induced spatial memory impairment and suppression of PP-DG long-term potentiation; CAP abolished CWS-induced dendritic regression and enhanced several memory-associated proteins decreased by CWS, such as synapsin I and PSD93; CAP also prevented CWS-induced tau hyperphosphorylation by abolishing inhibition of protein phosphatase 2A. Taken together, this study demonstrated that activation of TRPV1 can mitigate CWS-induced AD-like neuropathological alterations and cognitive impairment and may be a promising target for therapeutic intervention in AD.

Methylglyoxal induces tau hyperphosphorylation via promoting AGEs formation.

The hyperphosphorylated tau is a major protein component of neurofibrillary tangle, which is one of hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD). While the level of methylglyoxal (MG) is significantly increased in the AD brains, the role of MG in tau phosphorylation is still not reported. Here, we found that MG could induce tau hyperphosphorylation at multiple AD-related sites in neuroblastoma 2a cells under maintaining normal cell viability. MG treatment increased the level of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and the receptor of AGEs (RAGE). Glycogen synthesis kinase-3ß (GSK-3ß) and p38 MAPK were activated, whereas the level and activity of JNK, Erk1/2, cdk5, and PP2A were not altered after MG treatment. Simultaneous inhibition of GSK-3ß or p38 attenuated the MG-induced tau hyperphosphorylation. Aminoguanidine, a blocker of AGEs formation, could effectively reverse the MG-induced tau hyperphosphorylation. These data suggest that MG induces AD-like tau hyperphosphorylation through AGEs formation involving RAGE up-regulation and GSK-3ß activation and p38 activation is also partially involved in MG-induced tau hyperphosphorylation. Thus, targeting MG may be a promising therapeutic strategy to prevent AD-like tau hyperphosphorylation.