Toxicity of Essential Oil of Mentha piperita (Lamiaceae) and its Monoterpenoid Menthol Against Tetranychus urticae Kogan 1836 (Acari: Tetranychidae).

Essential oils from plants have remarkable biological properties, for example as insecticides and acaricides. Here we provide chemical analysis and evaluate the toxicity of the essential oil of Mentha piperita (Lamiaceae) and its main constituent menthol against Tetranychus urticae Kogan 1836 (Acari: Tetranychidae), a polyphagous pest present in agricultural landscapes. The essential oil was obtained from M. piperita leaves via hydrodistillation. Subsequently, concentration-response bioassays in adult females (fumigation and contact) were conducted to evaluate the lethal effect on the mite with three exposure intervals. We also evaluated the reproductive performance of females after exposure. Both substances were lethal in the fumigation bioassay, in addition, the essential oil was about 6-fold more toxic than menthol after 24 and 48 h of exposure. The fecundity of T. urticae females decreased inversely proportional to the increase of the used concentrations. Essential oil contact tests showed sublethal effects, with low mortality and reproductive stimulation of T. urticae females. Therefore, menthol and M. piperita essential oil can be considered potential acaricides for T. urticae by fumigant exposure due to the deleterious effect in adults and reduction in the number of individuals in subsequent generations, that represents a promising management tool.

Resistance and behavioural response of Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) populations to Bacillus thuringiensis formulations.

BACKGROUND: Insecticide resistance is probably the major cause of control failure of Plutella xylostella (L.) in Brazil. In most production regions, the use of chemicals has been the prevalent method of control, with reduced efficacy through cropping seasons, even for the most recent use of products based on Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). The current status of the resistance to these products was assessed, as well as the behavioural response of P. xylostella populations to Bt sprays. RESULTS: Most populations of P. xylostella were resistant to Bt products, particularly to Xentari®WDG (2-54-fold). Differences in walking characteristics of larvae were variable for most populations, for both Dipel®WP and Xentari®WDG, but not associated with resistance. Most females preferred to lay eggs on untreated surfaces and showed a reduced proportion of oviposition on treated surfaces that only correlated with resistance to Dipel®WP (r = -0.74, P = 0.02). CONCLUSION: Broad and indiscriminate use of Bt-based products has selected Brazilian P. xylostella populations to resistance. Larval movement appears to be a resistance-independent mechanism. Most populations of P. xylostella preferred to lay eggs on Bt-free surfaces, which might be a result of growers' practice of spraying the cabbage head. Reduced oviposition on treated surfaces correlated with physiological resistance, suggesting a behavioural response among the Bt-resistant colonies to Dipel®WP.

[Egg distribution of Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) and the parasitism by Trichogramma pretiosum Riley (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae)]. / Distribuição de ovos de Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) e o parasitismo por Trichogramma pretiosum Riley (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae).

Oviposition site preference of Plutella xylostella (L.) and the parasitism by Trichogramma pretiosum Riley on cabbage plants at pre- and post-head formation were investigated in commercial cabbage field. Groups of six plants were randomly caged. In each cage three pairs of 24h-old P. xylostella moths were released, followed by 1,200 T. pretiosum females released 12h later. After 48 h from parasitoid release, plants were harvested and fully inspected with the oviposition mapped according to the leaf position and their parts (basal, median and border) and upper and bellow leaf surfaces. Moth oviposition and egg parasitism were equally distributed across the plant leaves at the pre-head formation stage. At this stage, the basal part and the upper leaf surface were the preferred places for oviposition and egg parasitism, respectively. Cabbage plants at the post-head formation stage exhibited greater oviposition and egg parasitism in the inner leaf attached to the head. At this stage, the leaf border and the upper leaf surface were the preferred places for oviposition and egg parasitism, respectively. The infestation of P. xylostella on cabbage can be determined by egg counting at the pre- and post-head formation stages at the basal part of the leaves or at the border of the leaf attached to the head, respectively. And, in both plant stages parasitized eggs by T. pretiosum are more likely to be found at the upper leaf surface.

Distribuição de ovos de Plutella xylostella (L. ) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) e o parasitismo por Trichogramma pretiosum Riley (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) / Egg distribution of Plutella xylostella (L. ) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) and the parasitism by Trichogramma pretiosum Riley (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae)

Oviposition site preference of Plutella xylostella (L.) and the parasitism by Trichogramma pretiosum Riley on cabbage plants at pre- and post-head formation were investigated in commercial cabbage field. Groups of six plants were randomly caged. In each cage three pairs of 24h-old P. xylostella moths were released, followed by 1,200 T. pretiosum females released 12h later. After 48h from parasitoid release, plants were harvested and fully inspected with the oviposition mapped according to the leaf position and their parts (basal, median and border) and upper and bellow leaf surfaces. Moth oviposition and egg parasitism were equally distributed across the plant leaves at the pre-head formation stage. At this stage, the basal part and the upper leaf surface were the preferred places for oviposition and egg parasitism, respectively. Cabbage plants at the post-head formation stage exhibited greater oviposition and egg parasitism in the inner leaf attached to the head. At this stage, the leaf border and the upper leaf surface were the preferred places for oviposition and egg parasitism, respectively. The infestation of P. xylostella on cabbage can be determined by egg counting at the pre- and post-head formation stages at the basal part of the leaves or at the border of the leaf attached to the head, respectively. And, in both plant stages parasitized eggs by T. pretiosum are more likely to be found at the upper leaf surface.

[Parasitism capacity of Trichogramma pratissolii Querino & Zucchi (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) on alternative hosts, under different temperatures]. / Capacidade de parasitismo de Trichogramma pratissolii Querino & Zucchi (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) em hospedeiros alternativos, sob diferentes temperaturas.

The successful use of Trichogramma as biocontrol agent depends on its mass production in laboratory, a fundamental step for any biological control program among other factors. This work investigated the parasitism capacity of Trichogramma pratissolii Querino & Zuchi (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae), a new recorded Trichogramma species, parasitizing eggs of Anagasta kuehniella (Zeller) and Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) under the temperatures of 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30 and 33 degree Celsius. Eggs of these hosts were offered to newly emerged females during 24h. This procedure was repeated daily for each female and each temperature up to female death, in order to estimate daily and accumulated parasitism, and female longevity. On both hosts, the daily parasitism decreased as function of the female age. Under all temperatures studied and both hosts the highest rate of parasitism was observed during the first 24h of host exposure, and reached 80% of total parasitism in the 4th and 3rd days when parasitizing A. kuehniella and C. cephalonica, respectively. On both hosts, the highest parasitism rate was observed under temperatures from 21 degree Celsius to 27 degree Celsius. Average longevities of T. pratissolii females deprived of food emerging from A. kuehniella and C. cephalonica lived for 1.0 and 8.9 days when reared at 15 degree Celsius e 33 degree Celsius, respectively. The results indicate that eggs of A. kuehniella and C. cephalonica and temperatures from 21 degree Celsius to 27 degree Celsius were appropriate to rear T. pratissolii.

Capacidade de parasitismo de Trichogramma pratissolii Querino & Zucchi (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) em hospedeiros alternativos, sob diferentes temperaturas / Parasitism capacity of Trichogramma pratissolii Querino & Zucchi (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) on alternative hosts, under different temperatures

O sucesso no uso de Trichogramma como agente de controle biológico depende de sua produção em laboratório que é etapa fundamental, entre outras, em qualquer programa de controle biológico. Este trabalho investigou a capacidade de parasitismo de Trichogramma pratissolii Querino & Zuchi, uma nova espécie encontrada, parasitando ovos de Anagasta kuehniella (Zeller) e Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) submetidos a 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30 e 33°C. Ovos desses hospedeiros foram oferecidos para fêmeas recém-emergidas por 24h. Esse procedimento foi repetido para cada fêmea e temperatura até a morte das fêmeas do parasitóide, para estimar o parasitismo diário, acumulado e a longevidade das fêmeas. Em ambos hospedeiros, o parasitismo diário decresceu em função da idade da fêmea. Em todas as temperaturas estudadas e ambos hospedeiros, o maior parasitismo ocorreu durante as primeiras 24h e, atingiu 80 por cento do total no quarto e terceiro dias quando parasitou A. kuehniella e C. cephalonica, respectivamente. Para ambos os hospedeiros os maiores índices de parasitismo foram observados entre 21°C e 27°C. A longevidade média de fêmeas de T. pratissolii sem alimento e provenientes de ovos de A. kuehniella e C. cephalonica sobreviveram de 1,0 a 8,9 dias, quando criadas a 15°C e 33°C, respectivamente. Os resultados encontrados indicam que ovos de A. kuehniella e C. cephalonica e temperaturas de 21°C a 27°C foram apropriados para criação de T. pratissolii.

The successful use of Trichogramma as biocontrol agent depends on its mass production in laboratory, a fundamental step for any biological control program among other factors. This work investigated the parasitism capacity of Trichogramma pratissolii Querino & Zuchi (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae), a new recorded Trichogramma species, parasitizing eggs of Anagasta kuehniella (Zeller) and Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) under the temperatures of 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30 and 33°C. Eggs of these hosts were offered to newly emerged females during 24h. This procedure was repeated daily for each female and each temperature up to female death, in order to estimate daily and accumulated parasitism, and female longevity. On both hosts, the daily parasitism decreased as function of the female age. Under all temperatures studied and both hosts the highest rate of parasitism was observed during the first 24h of host exposure, and reached 80 percent of total parasitism in the 4th and 3rd days when parasitizing A. kuehniella and C. cephalonica, respectively. On both hosts, the highest parasitism rate was observed under temperatures from 21°C to 27°C. Average longevities of T. pratissolii females deprived of food emerging from A. kuehniella and C. cephalonica lived for 1.0 and 8.9 days when reared at 15°C e 33°C, respectively. The results indicate that eggs of A. kuehniella and C. cephalonica and temperatures from 21°C to 27°C were appropriate to rear T. pratissolii.

Biologia e exigências térmicas de Trichogramma pratissolii Querino & Zucchi (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) em hospedeiros alternativos / Biology and thermal requirements Trichogramma pratissolii Querino & Zucchi (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) on alternative hosts

O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar a biologia e as exigências térmicas de Trichogramma pratissolii Querino & Zucchi em Anagasta kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) e Corcyra cephalonica Stainton (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), nas temperaturas de 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30 e 33°C. A porcentagem de emergência de T. pratissolii em A. kuehniella foi maior a 27°C, e em C. cephalonica, foi maior às temperaturas de 24°C a 30°C. O limite térmico inferior de desenvolvimento (Tb) e a constante térmica (K) de T. pratissolii foram 12,59°C (Tb) e 122,85 graus-dias (K) em A. kuehniella e 11,73°C (Tb) e 139,80 graus-dias (K) em C. cephalonica. Os resultados indicam que ambos hospedeiros A. kuehniella e C. cephalonica podem ser utilizados para criação massal de T. pratissolii. A melhor temperatura para desenvolvimento da forma imatura e para a emergência de T. pratissolii em A. kuehniella foi 27°C e, em C. cephalonica, na faixa de 24°C a 30°C.

The objective of this work was to study the biology and determine the thermal requirements of Trichogramma pratissolii Querino & Zucchi reared on Anagasta kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and Corcyra cephalonica Stainton (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) at 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30 and 33°C. The highest percentage of emergence of T. pratissolii was obtained at 27°C on A. kuehniella and from 24°C to 30°C on C. cephalonica. The lower threshold temperature (Tb) and the thermal requirement (K) of T. pratissolii were 12.59°C (Tb) and 122.85 degree-days (K) when reared on A. kuehniella and 11.73°C (Tb) and 139.80 degree-days (K) on C. cephalonica. These results indicate that both A. kuehniella and C. cephalonica are suitable hosts for T. pratissolii mass rearing. The optimal temperature for the immature development and emergence of T. pratissolii on A. kuehniella was 27°C and 24°C to 30°C on C. cephalonica.

[Biology and thermal requirements Trichogramma pratissolii Querino & Zucchi (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) on alternative hosts]. / Biologia e exigências térmicas de Trichogramma pratissolii Querino & Zucchi (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) em hospedeiros alternativos.

The objective of this work was to study the biology and determine the thermal requirements of Trichogramma pratissolii Querino & Zucchi reared on Anagasta kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and Corcyra cephalonica Stainton (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) at 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30 and 33 masculineC. The highest percentage of emergence of T. pratissolii was obtained at 27 masculineC on A. kuehniella and from 24 masculineC to 30 masculineC on C. cephalonica. The lower threshold temperature (Tb) and the thermal requirement (K) of T. pratissolii were 12.59 masculineC (Tb) and 122.85 degree-days (K) when reared on A. kuehniella and 11.73 masculineC (Tb) and 139.80 degree-days (K) on C. cephalonica. These results indicate that both A. kuehniella and C. cephalonica are suitable hosts for T. pratissolii mass rearing. The optimal temperature for the immature development and emergence of T. pratissolii on A. kuehniella was 27 masculineC and 24 masculineC to 30 masculineC on C. cephalonica.

Efeito da disponibilidade de hospedeiro e de alimento nas características biológicas de Trichogramma galloi Zucchi (Hymenoptera, Trichogrammatidae) / Efect of host and food availability on the biological characteristics of Trichogramma galloi Zucchi (Hymenoptera, Trichogrammatidae)

Características biológicas de Trichogramma galloi Zucchi, 1988 foram avaliadas em laboratório onde esses parasitóides foram criados com ovos de Diatraea saccharalis (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae), com ou sem mel, e expostos a ovos do hospedeiro após 0, 6, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72 e 84 horas da emergência. As taxas de parasitismo e de viabilidade mostraram-se elevadas para indivíduos que receberam alimento. A razão sexual não foi influenciada pelo alimento. O número de indivíduos por ovo somente mostrou diferença para aqueles adultos que não receberam alimento e permaneceram 6 horas sem ovos do hospedeiro. Conferindo o efeito da disponibilidade de ovos, somente a razão sexual, com ou sem mel, não mostrou diferenças. Os resultados mostram que T. galloi necessita de um suprimento de carboidratos e que o tempo pode influenciar a capacidade reprodutiva.