Digital Extended Specimens: Enabling an Extensible Network of Biodiversity Data Records as Integrated Digital Objects on the Internet.

The early twenty-first century has witnessed massive expansions in availability and accessibility of digital data in virtually all domains of the biodiversity sciences. Led by an array of asynchronous digitization activities spanning ecological, environmental, climatological, and biological collections data, these initiatives have resulted in a plethora of mostly disconnected and siloed data, leaving to researchers the tedious and time-consuming manual task of finding and connecting them in usable ways, integrating them into coherent data sets, and making them interoperable. The focus to date has been on elevating analog and physical records to digital replicas in local databases prior to elevating them to ever-growing aggregations of essentially disconnected discipline-specific information. In the present article, we propose a new interconnected network of digital objects on the Internet-the Digital Extended Specimen (DES) network-that transcends existing aggregator technology, augments the DES with third-party data through machine algorithms, and provides a platform for more efficient research and robust interdisciplinary discovery.

Gene flow in phylogenomics: Sequence capture resolves species limits and biogeography of Afromontane forest endemic frogs from the Cameroon Highlands.

Puddle frogs of the Phrynobatrachus steindachneri species complex are a useful group for investigating speciation and phylogeography in Afromontane forests of the Cameroon Volcanic Line, western Central Africa. The species complex is represented by six morphologically relatively cryptic mitochondrial DNA lineages, only two of which are distinguished at the species level - southern P. jimzimkusi and Lake Oku endemic P. njiomock, leaving the remaining four lineages identified as 'P. steindachneri'. In this study, the six mtDNA lineages are subjected to genomic sequence capture analyses and morphological examination to delimit species and to study biogeography. The nuclear DNA data (387 loci; 571,936 aligned base pairs) distinguished all six mtDNA lineages, but the topological pattern and divergence depths supported only four main clades: P. jimzimkusi, P. njiomock, and only two divergent evolutionary lineages within the four 'P. steindachneri' mtDNA lineages. One of the two lineages is herein described as a new species, P. amieti sp. nov. Reticulate evolution (hybridization) was detected within the species complex with morphologically intermediate hybrid individuals placed between the parental species in phylogenomic analyses, forming a ladder-like phylogenetic pattern. The presence of hybrids is undesirable in standard phylogenetic analyses but is essential and beneficial in the network multispecies coalescent. This latter approach provided insight into the reticulate evolutionary history of these endemic frogs. Introgressions likely occurred during the Middle and Late Pleistocene climatic oscillations, due to the cyclic connections (likely dominating during cold glacials) and separations (during warm interglacials) of montane forests. The genomic phylogeographic pattern supports the separation of the southern (Mt. Manengouba to Mt. Oku) and northern mountains at the onset of the Pleistocene. Further subdivisions occurred in the Early Pleistocene, separating populations from the northernmost (Tchabal Mbabo, Gotel Mts.) and middle mountains (Mt. Mbam, Mt. Oku, Mambilla Plateau), as well as the microendemic lineage restricted to Lake Oku (Mt. Oku). This unique model system is highly threatened as all the species within the complex have exhibited severe population declines in the past decade, placing them on the brink of extinction. In addition, Mount Oku is identified to be of particular conservation importance because it harbors three species of this complex. We, therefore, urge for conservation actions in the Cameroon Highlands to preserve their diversity before it is too late.

Evolutionary history of the Cameroon radiation of puddle frogs (Phrynobatrachidae: Phrynobatrachus), with descriptions of two critically endangered new species from the northern Cameroon Volcanic Line.

The Cameroon Volcanic Line, a mountain chain located between West and Central Africa, is a region of numerous endemic diversifications, including of puddle frogs (Phrynobatrachus). This study reviews the phylogeny and taxonomy of puddle frogs of the "Cameroon radiation," which is a clade containing mainly montane but also at least three lowland species. Molecular data revealed a novel evolutionary lineage from high altitudes in the northern part of the mountains. Puddle frogs from the new, minute-sized (SVL < 20 mm) lineage are identified using molecular, morphological and acoustic data and described as two new species, Phrynobatrachus arcanus sp. nov. (Gotel Mountains, Cameroon-Nigeria) and P. mbabo sp. nov. (Tchabal Mbabo, Cameroon). The tadpole of the first species is also described. Phylogenetic analyses placed the new lineage to the proximity of the recently described lowland small-sized taxa (P. horsti, P. ruthbeateae). Based on the inferred phylogeny, we propose five species groups within the Cameroon radiation: P. arcanus, P. chukuchuku, P. ruthbeateae, P. steindachneri, and P. werneri. The taxonomically enigmatic P. hylaios is proposed to be a member of the P. ruthbeateae species group. The basal radiation evolved during the late Miocene with subsequent diversifications occurring during the Pliocene, while closely related terminal taxa originated during the Pleistocene. We recommend that the newly described species are categorized as Critically Endangered due to their limited ranges and because recent surveys did not identify any individuals at the type localities. This further supports the need for conservation interventions in the mountains of Cameroon and Nigeria.

A new species of Phrynobatrachus (Anura: Phrynobatrachidae) from the Eastern Arc Mountians of Tanzania.

Phrynobatrachus discogularis sp. nov. (Anura, Phrynobatrachidae) is described from the Eastern Arc Mountains in Tanzania. It occupies upland grasslands and while it morphologically most resembles West and Central African P. gutturosus (Chabanaud, 1921), P. rungwensis (Loveridge, 1932), and P. anotis Schmidt and Inger, 1959, preliminary analysis of mitochondrial 16S rRNA indicates that the new species differs from all other species with published sequence data by a minimum distance of 4.1% and has affinities with P. rungwensis, P. uzungwensis Grandison and Howell, 1983 and P. keniensis Barbour and Loveridge, 1928-all diminutive upland eastern African taxa. The shape and colour of the male's external gular apparatus distinguish this species from all other described Phrynobatrachus species. Although geographically either sympatric or closely allopatric with P. uzungwensis, the lack of overlapping morphological characters indicates the two forms are distinct species. The new taxon is compared with other species from the region.

How many species and under what names? Using DNA barcoding and GenBank data for west Central African amphibian conservation.

Development projects in west Central Africa are proceeding at an unprecedented rate, often with little concern for their effects on biodiversity. In an attempt to better understand potential impacts of a road development project on the anuran amphibian community, we conducted a biodiversity assessment employing multiple methodologies (visual encounter transects, auditory surveys, leaf litter plots and pitfall traps) to inventory species prior to construction of a new road within the buffer zone of Moukalaba-Doudou National Park, Gabon. Because of difficulties in morphological identification and taxonomic uncertainty of amphibian species observed in the area, we integrated a DNA barcoding analysis into the project to improve the overall quality and accuracy of the species inventory. Based on morphology alone, 48 species were recognized in the field and voucher specimens of each were collected. We used tissue samples from specimens collected at our field site, material available from amphibians collected in other parts of Gabon and the Republic of Congo to initiate a DNA barcode library for west Central African amphibians. We then compared our sequences with material in GenBank for the genera recorded at the study site to assist in identifications. The resulting COI and 16S barcode library allowed us to update the number of species documented at the study site to 28, thereby providing a more accurate assessment of diversity and distributions. We caution that because sequence data maintained in GenBank are often poorly curated by the original submitters and cannot be amended by third-parties, these data have limited utility for identification purposes. Nevertheless, the use of DNA barcoding is likely to benefit biodiversity inventories and long-term monitoring, particularly for taxa that can be difficult to identify based on morphology alone; likewise, inventory and monitoring programs can contribute invaluable data to the DNA barcode library and the taxonomy of complex groups. Our methods provide an example of how non-taxonomists and parataxonomists working in understudied parts of the world with limited geographic sampling and comparative morphological material can use DNA barcoding and publicly available sequence data (GenBank) to rapidly identify the number of species and assign tentative names to aid in urgent conservation management actions and contribute to taxonomic resolution.

Leapfrogging into new territory: How Mascarene ridged frogs diversified across Africa and Madagascar to maintain their ecological niche.

The Mascarene ridged frog, Ptychadena mascareniensis, is a species complex that includes numerous lineages occurring mostly in humid savannas and open forests of mainland Africa, Madagascar, the Seychelles, and the Mascarene Islands. Sampling across this broad distribution presents an opportunity to examine the genetic differentiation within this complex and to investigate how the evolution of bioclimatic niches may have shaped current biogeographic patterns. Using model-based phylogenetic methods and molecular-clock dating, we constructed a time-calibrated molecular phylogenetic hypothesis for the group based on mitochondrial 16S rRNA and cytochrome b (cytb) genes and the nuclear RAG1 gene from 173 individuals. Haplotype networks were reconstructed and species boundaries were investigated using three species-delimitation approaches: Bayesian generalized mixed Yule-coalescent model (bGMYC), the Poisson Tree Process model (PTP) and a cluster algorithm (SpeciesIdentifier). Estimates of similarity in bioclimatic niche were calculated from species-distribution models (maxent) and multivariate statistics (Principal Component Analysis, Discriminant Function Analysis). Ancestral-area reconstructions were performed on the phylogeny using probabilistic approaches implemented in BioGeoBEARS. We detected high levels of genetic differentiation yielding ten distinct lineages or operational taxonomic units, and Central Africa was found to be a diversity hotspot for these frogs. Most speciation events took place throughout the Miocene, including "out-of-Africa" overseas dispersal events to Madagascar in the East and to São Tomé in the West. Bioclimatic niche was remarkably well conserved, with most species tolerating similar temperature and rainfall conditions common to the Central African region. The P. mascareniensis complex provides insights into how bioclimatic niche shaped the current biogeographic patterns with niche conservatism being exhibited by the Central African radiation and niche divergence shaping populations in West Africa and Madagascar. Central Africa, including the Albertine Rift region, has been an important center of diversification for this species complex.

Terrestrialization, miniaturization and rates of diversification in African puddle frogs (Anura: Phrynobatrachidae).

Terrestrialization, the evolution of non-aquatic oviposition, and miniaturization, the evolution of tiny adult body size, are recurring trends in amphibian evolution, but the relationships among the traits that characterize these phenomena are not well understood. Furthermore, these traits have been identified as possible "key innovations" that are predicted to increase rates of speciation in those lineages in which they evolve. We examine terrestrialization and miniaturization in sub-Saharan puddle frogs (Phrynobatrachidae) in a phylogenetic context to investigate the relationship between adaptation and diversification through time. We use relative dating techniques to ascertain if character trait shifts are associated with increased diversification rates, and we evaluate the likelihood that a single temporal event can explain the evolution of those traits. Results indicate alternate reproductive modes evolved independently in Phrynobatrachus at least seven times, including terrestrial deposition of eggs and terrestrial, non-feeding larvae. These shifts towards alternate reproductive modes are not linked to a common temporal event. Contrary to the "key innovations" hypothesis, clades that exhibit alternate reproductive modes have lower diversification rates than those that deposit eggs aquatically. Adult habitat, pedal webbing and body size have no effect on diversification rates. Though these traits putatively identified as key innovations for Phrynobatrachus do not seem to be associated with increased speciation rates, they may still provide opportunities to extend into new niches, thus increasing overall diversity.

Complex patterns of continental speciation: molecular phylogenetics and biogeography of sub-Saharan puddle frogs (Phrynobatrachus).

Puddle frogs (Anura: Phrynobatrachidae) are one of the most species-rich sub-Saharan amphibian groups, occupying an extraordinarily diverse range of habitats. We construct the first phylogeny of puddle frogs, utilizing mitochondrial (12S rRNA, valine-tRNA, and 16S rRNA) and nuclear (RAG-1) DNA. Phylogenetic analyses are conducted using separate and combined partitions under maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian criterion. Monophyly of the Phrynobatrachidae is well supported, and three major clades of Phrynobatrachus are identified. We reconstructed a biogeographic history using habitat preference, elevation, and geographic distribution. Habitat niches appear to be conserved between sister species, with the majority of species favoring forest over savanna habitats and the most recent common ancestor of the Phrynobatrachidae reconstructed as a forest species. Analyses of elevational data identify three independent colonizations of highland regions, one in each of the three major clades. Ancestral reconstructions support an East African origination of puddle frogs. Most species are restricted to one of five sub-Saharan regions and are distributed within the Eastern, Central, and Western zones with far fewer species in Southern Africa. These results elucidate the complex patterns of spatial niche partitioning that have contributed to the diversification of this widely distributed, sub-Saharan genus.