Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) for depressive-like symptoms in rodent animal models.

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) emerged as a non-invasive brain stimulation technique in the treatment of psychiatric disorders. Both preclinical and clinical studies as well as systematic reviews provide a heterogeneous picture, particularly concerning the stimulation protocols used in rTMS. Here, we present a review of rTMS effects in rodent models of depressive-like symptoms with the aim to identify the most relevant factors that lead to an increased therapeutic success. The influence of different factors, such as the stimulation parameters (stimulus frequency and intensity, duration of stimulation, shape and positioning of the coil), symptom severity and individual characteristics (age, species and genetic background of the rodents), on the therapeutic success are discussed. Accumulating evidence indicates that rTMS ameliorates a multitude of depressive-like symptoms in rodent models, most effectively at high stimulation frequencies (≥5 Hz) especially in adult rodents with a pronounced pathological phenotype. The therapeutic success of rTMS might be increased in the future by considering these factors and using more standardized stimulation protocols.

Valence-dependent effects of neuropeptide Y on the expression of conditioned fear and anxiety-like behavior: Involvement of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) has anxiolytic-like effects and facilitates the extinction of cued and contextual fear in rodents. We have previously shown that intracerebroventricular administration of NPY reduces the expression of social fear via simultaneous activation of Y1 and Y2 receptors in a mouse model of social fear conditioning (SFC). In the present study, we investigated whether the anteroventral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNSTav) mediates these effects of NPY, given the important role of BNSTav in regulating anxiety- and fear-related behaviors. We show that while NPY (0.1 nmol/0.2 µl/side) did not reduce the expression of SFC-induced social fear in male CD1 mice, it reduced the expression of both cued and contextual fear by acting on Y2 but not on Y1 receptors within the BNSTav. Prior administration of the Y2 receptor antagonist BIIE0246 (0.2 nmol/0.2 µl/side) but not of the Y1 receptor antagonist BIBO3304 trifluoroacetate (0.2 nmol/0.2 µl/side) blocked the effects of NPY on the expression of cued and contextual fear. Similarly, NPY exerted non-social anxiolytic-like effects in the elevated plus maze test but not social anxiolytic-like effects in the social approach avoidance test by acting on Y2 receptors and not on Y1 receptors within the BNSTav. These results suggest that administration of NPY within the BNSTav exerts robust Y2 receptor-mediated fear-reducing and anxiolytic-like effects specifically in non-social contexts and add a novel piece of evidence regarding the neural underpinnings underlying the effects of NPY on conditioned fear and anxiety-like behavior.

Development of Comorbid Depression after Social Fear Conditioning in Mice and Its Effects on Brain Sphingolipid Metabolism.

Currently, there are no animal models for studying both specific social fear and social fear with comorbidities. Here, we investigated whether social fear conditioning (SFC), an animal model with face, predictive and construct validity for social anxiety disorder (SAD), leads to the development of comorbidities at a later stage over the course of the disease and how this affects the brain sphingolipid metabolism. SFC altered both the emotional behavior and the brain sphingolipid metabolism in a time-point-dependent manner. While social fear was not accompanied by changes in non-social anxiety-like and depressive-like behavior for at least two to three weeks, a comorbid depressive-like behavior developed five weeks after SFC. These different pathologies were accompanied by different alterations in the brain sphingolipid metabolism. Specific social fear was accompanied by increased activity of ceramidases in the ventral hippocampus and ventral mesencephalon and by small changes in sphingolipid levels in the dorsal hippocampus. Social fear with comorbid depression, however, altered the activity of sphingomyelinases and ceramidases as well as the sphingolipid levels and sphingolipid ratios in most of the investigated brain regions. This suggests that changes in the brain sphingolipid metabolism might be related to the short- and long-term pathophysiology of SAD.

Antiviral and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Fluoxetine in a SARS-CoV-2 Infection Mouse Model.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic continues to cause significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. Since a large portion of the world's population is currently unvaccinated or incompletely vaccinated and has limited access to approved treatments against COVID-19, there is an urgent need to continue research on treatment options, especially those at low cost and which are immediately available to patients, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Prior in vitro and observational studies have shown that fluoxetine, possibly through its inhibitory effect on the acid sphingomyelinase/ceramide system, could be a promising antiviral and anti-inflammatory treatment against COVID-19. In this report, we evaluated the potential antiviral and anti-inflammatory activities of fluoxetine in a K18-hACE2 mouse model of SARS-CoV-2 infection, and against variants of concern in vitro, i.e., SARS-CoV-2 ancestral strain, Alpha B.1.1.7, Gamma P1, Delta B1.617 and Omicron BA.5. Fluoxetine, administrated after SARS-CoV-2 infection, significantly reduced lung tissue viral titres and expression of several inflammatory markers (i.e., IL-6, TNFα, CCL2 and CXCL10). It also inhibited the replication of all variants of concern in vitro. A modulation of the ceramide system in the lung tissues, as reflected by the increase in the ratio HexCer 16:0/Cer 16:0 in fluoxetine-treated mice, may contribute to explain these effects. Our findings demonstrate the antiviral and anti-inflammatory properties of fluoxetine in a K18-hACE2 mouse model of SARS-CoV-2 infection, and its in vitro antiviral activity against variants of concern, establishing fluoxetine as a very promising candidate for the prevention and treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection and disease pathogenesis.

Elevated Oxytocin Receptor Blood Concentrations Predict Higher Risk for, More, and Earlier 24-Month Hospital Readmissions after In-Patient Detoxification in Males with Alcohol Use Disorder.

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a major global mental health challenge. Knowledge concerning mechanisms underlying AUD and predictive biomarkers of AUD progression and relapse are insufficient. Recently, addiction research is focusing attention on the oxytocin system. However, to our knowledge, blood concentrations of the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) have not yet been studied in AUD. Here, in sex-separated analyses, OXTR serum concentrations were compared between early-abstinent in-patients with AUD (113 men, 87 women) and age-matched healthy controls (133 men, 107 women). The OXTR concentrations were correlated with sex hormone and oxytocin concentrations and alcohol-related hospital readmissions during a 24-month follow-up. In male patients with AUD, higher OXTR concentrations were found in those with an alcohol-related readmission than in those without (143%; p = 0.004), and they correlated with more prospective readmissions (ρ = 0.249; p = 0.008) and fewer days to the first readmission (ρ = -0.268; p = 0.004). In men and women, OXTR concentrations did not significantly differ between patients with AUD and controls. We found lower OXTR concentrations in smokers versus non-smokers in female patients (61%; p = 0.001) and controls (51%; p = 0.003). In controls, OXTR concentrations correlated with dihydrotestosterone (men, ρ = 0.189; p = 0.030) and testosterone concentrations (women, ρ = 0.281; p = 0.003). This clinical study provides novel insight into the role of serum OXTR levels in AUD. Future studies are encouraged to add to the available knowledge and investigate clinical implications of OXTR blood concentrations.

Social Fear Affects Limbic System Neuronal Activity and Gene Expression.

Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is a highly prevalent and comorbid anxiety disorder with rather unclear underlying mechanisms. Here, we aimed to characterize neurobiological changes occurring in mice expressing symptoms of social fear and to identify possible therapeutic targets for SAD. Social fear was induced via social fear conditioning (SFC), a validated animal model of SAD. We assessed the expression levels of the immediate early genes (IEGs) cFos, Fosl2 and Arc as markers of neuronal activity and the expression levels of several genes of the GABAergic, serotoninergic, oxytocinergic, vasopressinergic and neuropeptide Y (NPY)-ergic systems in brain regions involved in social behavior or fear-related behavior in SFC+ and SFC- mice 2 h after exposure to a conspecific. SFC+ mice showed a decreased number and density of cFos-positive cells and decreased expression levels of IEGs in the dorsal hippocampus. SFC+ mice also showed alterations in the expression of NPY and serotonin system-related genes in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, basolateral amygdala, septum and dorsal raphe nucleus, but not in the dorsal hippocampus. Our results describe neuronal alterations occurring during the expression of social fear and identify the NPY and serotonergic systems as possible targets in the treatment of SAD.

Acid Sphingomyelinase Is a Modulator of Contextual Fear.

Acid sphingomyelinase (ASM) regulates a variety of physiological processes and plays an important role in emotional behavior. The role of ASM in fear-related behavior has not been investigated so far. Using transgenic mice overexpressing ASM (ASMtg) and ASM deficient mice, we studied whether ASM regulates fear learning and expression of cued and contextual fear in a classical fear conditioning paradigm, a model used to investigate specific attributes of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). We show that ASM does not affect fear learning as both ASMtg and ASM deficient mice display unaltered fear conditioning when compared to wild-type littermates. However, ASM regulates the expression of contextual fear in a sex-specific manner. While ASM overexpression enhances the expression of contextual fear in both male and female mice, ASM deficiency reduces the expression of contextual fear specifically in male mice. The expression of cued fear, however, is not regulated by ASM as ASMtg and ASM deficient mice display similar tone-elicited freezing levels. This study shows that ASM modulates the expression of contextual fear but not of cued fear in a sex-specific manner and adds a novel piece of information regarding the involvement of ASM in hippocampal-dependent aversive memory.

Neuropeptide Y Reduces Social Fear in Male Mice: Involvement of Y1 and Y2 Receptors in the Dorsolateral Septum and Central Amygdala.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) has anxiolytic-like effects and facilitates the extinction of cued and contextual fear in rodents. We previously showed that intracerebroventricular administration of NPY reduces the expression of social fear in a mouse model of social fear conditioning (SFC) and localized these effects to the dorsolateral septum (DLS) and central amygdala (CeA). In the present study, we aimed to identify the receptor subtypes that mediate these local effects of NPY. We show that NPY (0.1 nmol/0.2 µL/side) reduced the expression of SFC-induced social fear in a brain region- and receptor-specific manner in male mice. In the DLS, NPY reduced the expression of social fear by acting on Y2 receptors but not on Y1 receptors. As such, prior administration of the Y2 receptor antagonist BIIE0246 (0.2 nmol/0.2 µL/side) but not the Y1 receptor antagonist BIBO3304 trifluoroacetate (0.2 nmol/0.2 µL/side) blocked the effects of NPY in the DLS. In the CeA, however, BIBO3304 trifluoroacetate but not BIIE0246 blocked the effects of NPY, suggesting that NPY reduced the expression of social fear by acting on Y1 receptors but not Y2 receptors within the CeA. This study suggests that at least two distinct receptor subtypes are differentially recruited in the DLS and CeA to mediate the effects of NPY on the expression of social fear.

Oxytocin blood concentrations in alcohol use disorder: A cross-sectional, longitudinal, and sex-separated study.

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a severe illness, for which we lack sufficient mechanistic understanding. Preliminary evidence associates AUD with the oxytocin (OXT) system. Here we investigated alterations in endogenous OXT blood concentrations in patients with AUD and their association with alcohol drinking and prospective course. In sex-separated analyses, OXT serum concentrations of 200 in-patients with AUD (56.5% male; baseline, 24-72 h of abstinence) were compared with those of 240 age-matched healthy controls (55.4% male), investigated longitudinally (follow-up, 5 days later), and tested for associations with alcohol drinking behavior and prospective 24-month alcohol-related hospital readmissions. At baseline, the patients showed increased OXT concentrations relative to controls (men, 156%, P < 0.001; women, 124%, P = 0.002). The elevations normalized at follow-up. In male patients, baseline OXT concentrations correlated positively with alcohol concentration at admission, the amount of alcohol consumption per drinking year, and the number of previous withdrawal treatments (Rho > 0.195, P < 0.044). In beverage type-specific analysis, baseline OXT concentrations correlated with liquor consumption positively in male and negatively in female patients (|Rho| > 0.277, P < 0.017). Higher baseline OXT concentrations predicted more readmissions and fewer days to the first readmission (|Rho| > 0.185, P < 0.050) in male patients. This study provides novel and sex-separated insights into the role of the OXT system in AUD. We identified a mechanism that might underlie the sex-separated choice of beverage type and established that increased OXT concentrations during early abstinence predict a worse outcome in male patients with AUD.

mRNA Expression of SMPD1 Encoding Acid Sphingomyelinase Decreases upon Antidepressant Treatment.

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a severe psychiatric condition with key symptoms of low mood and lack of motivation, joy, and pleasure. Recently, the acid sphingomyelinase (ASM)/ceramide system has been implicated in the pathogenesis of MDD. ASM is a lysosomal glycoprotein that catalyzes the hydrolysis of sphingomyelin, an abundant component of membranes, into the bioactive sphingolipid ceramide, which impacts signaling pathways. ASM activity is inhibited by several common antidepressant drugs. Human and murine studies have confirmed that increased ASM activity and ceramide levels are correlated with MDD. To define a molecular marker for treatment monitoring, we investigated the mRNA expression of SMPD1, which encodes ASM, in primary cell culture models, a mouse study, and a human study with untreated MDD patients before and after antidepressive treatment. Our cell culture study showed that a common antidepressant inhibited ASM activity at the enzymatic level and also at the transcriptional level. In a genetically modified mouse line with depressive-like behavior, Smpd1 mRNA expression in dorsal hippocampal tissue was significantly decreased after treatment with a common antidepressant. The large human study showed that SMPD1 mRNA expression in untreated MDD patients decreased significantly after antidepressive treatment. This translational study shows that SMPD1 mRNA expression could serve as a molecular marker for treatment and adherence monitoring of MDD.

Brain Region-Dependent Effects of Neuropeptide Y on Conditioned Social Fear and Anxiety-Like Behavior in Male Mice.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) has anxiolytic-like effects and facilitates the extinction of cued and contextual fear in rodents. We have previously shown that the intracerebroventricular administration of NPY reduces the expression of social fear in a mouse model of social fear conditioning (SFC). In the present study, we aimed to identify the brain regions that mediate these effects of NPY. We show that NPY (0.1 nmol/0.2 µL/side) reduces the expression of SFC-induced social fear in a brain-region-dependent manner. In more detail, NPY reduced the expression of social fear when administered into the dorsolateral septum (DLS) and central amygdala (CeA), but not when administered into the dorsal hippocampus (DH), medial amygdala (MeA) and basolateral amygdala (BLA). We also investigated whether the reduced expression of social fear might partly be due to a reduced anxiety-like behavior, and showed that NPY exerted anxiolytic-like effects when administered into the DH, DLS, CeA and BLA, but not when administered into the MeA. This study identifies the DLS and the CeA as brain regions mediating the effects of NPY on the expression of social fear and suggests that partly distinct neural circuitries mediate the effects of NPY on the expression of social fear and on anxiety-like behavior.

Neuropeptide Y as Alternative Pharmacotherapy for Antidepressant-Resistant Social Fear.

In many social anxiety disorder (SAD) patients, the efficacy of antidepressant therapy is unsatisfactory. Here, we investigated whether mice deficient for the lysosomal glycoprotein acid sphingomyelinase (ASM-/-) represent an appropriate tool to study antidepressant-resistant social fear. We also investigated whether neuropeptide Y (NPY) reduces this antidepressant-resistant social fear in ASM-/- mice, given that NPY reduced social fear in a mouse model of SAD, namely social fear conditioning (SFC). We show that neither chronic paroxetine nor chronic amitriptyline administration via drinking water were successful in reducing SFC-induced social fear in ASM-/- mice, while the same treatment reduced social fear in ASM+/- mice and completely reversed social fear in ASM+/+ mice. This indicates that the antidepressants paroxetine and amitriptyline reduce social fear via the ASM-ceramide system and that ASM-/- mice represent an appropriate tool to study antidepressant-resistant social fear. The intracerebroventricular administration of NPY, on the other hand, reduced social fear in ASM-/- mice, suggesting that NPY might represent an alternative pharmacotherapy for antidepressant-resistant social fear. These results suggest that medication strategies aimed at increasing brain NPY concentrations might improve symptoms of social fear in SAD patients who fail to respond to antidepressant treatments.

Social Fear Memory Requires Two Stages of Protein Synthesis in Mice.

It is well known that long-term consolidation of newly acquired information, including information related to social fear, require de novo protein synthesis. However, the temporal dynamics of protein synthesis during the consolidation of social fear memories is unclear. To address this question, mice received a single systemic injection with the protein synthesis inhibitor, anisomycin, at different time-points before or after social fear conditioning (SFC), and memory was assessed 24 h later. We showed that anisomycin impaired the consolidation of social fear memories in a time-point-dependent manner. Mice that received anisomycin 20 min before, immediately after, 6 h, or 8 h after SFC showed reduced expression of social fear, indicating impaired social fear memory, whereas anisomycin caused no effects when administered 4 h after SFC. These results suggest that consolidation of social fear memories requires two stages of protein synthesis: (1) an initial stage starting during or immediately after SFC, and (2) a second stage starting around 6 h after SFC and lasting for at least 5 h.

Neuropeptide Y prolongs non-social memory in a brain region- and receptor-specific way in male mice.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) and its receptors are highly expressed in brain regions involved in learning and memory processes. We have previously shown that intracerebroventricular administration of NPY prolongs the retention of non-social memory in the object discrimination test. Here, we aimed to identify the brain regions which mediate these memory-enhancing effects of NPY. We show that NPY (0.1 nmol/0.2 µl/side) prolongs retention of non-social memory when administered into the dorsolateral septum (DLS) and medial amygdala (MeA), but not when administered into the dorsal hippocampus, central amygdala and basolateral amygdala. In the DLS, the effects of NPY were blocked by the Y1 receptor antagonist BIBO3304 trifluoroacetate (0.2 nmol/0.2 µl/side), but not by the Y2 receptor antagonist BIIE0246 (0.2 nmol/0.2 µl/side). In the MeA, on the other hand, BIIE0246, but not BIBO3304 trifluoroacetate blocked the effects of NPY. This study demonstrates that NPY exerts Y1 receptor-mediated memory-enhancing effects in the DLS and Y2 receptor-mediated memory-enhancing effects in the MeA, and suggests that distinct brain regions and receptor subtypes are recruited to mediate the effects of NPY on non-social memory.

Anxiety and Depression Are Related to Higher Activity of Sphingolipid Metabolizing Enzymes in the Rat Brain.

Changes in sphingolipid metabolism have been suggested to contribute to the pathophysiology of major depression. In this study, we investigated the activity of acid and neutral sphingomyelinases (ASM, NSM) and ceramidases (AC, NC), respectively, in twelve brain regions of female rats selectively bred for high (HAB) versus low (LAB) anxiety-like behavior. Concomitant with their highly anxious and depressive-like phenotype, HAB rats showed increased activity of ASM and NSM as well as of AC and NC in multiple brain regions associated with anxiety- and depressive-like behavior, including the lateral septum, hypothalamus, ventral hippocampus, ventral and dorsal mesencephalon. Strong correlations between anxiety-like behavior and ASM activity were found in female HAB rats in the amygdala, ventral hippocampus and dorsal mesencephalon, whereas NSM activity correlated with anxiety levels in the dorsal mesencephalon. These results provide novel information about the sphingolipid metabolism, especially about the sphingomyelinases and ceramidases, in major depression and comorbid anxiety.

The Forebrain-Specific Overexpression of Acid Sphingomyelinase Induces Depressive-Like Symptoms in Mice.

Human and murine studies identified the lysosomal enzyme acid sphingomyelinase (ASM) as a target for antidepressant therapy and revealed its role in the pathophysiology of major depression. In this study, we generated a mouse model with overexpression of Asm (Asm-tgfb) that is restricted to the forebrain to rule out any systemic effects of Asm overexpression on depressive-like symptoms. The increase in Asm activity was higher in male Asm-tgfb mice than in female Asm-tgfb mice due to the breeding strategy, which allows for the generation of wild-type littermates as appropriate controls. Asm overexpression in the forebrain of male mice resulted in a depressive-like phenotype, whereas in female mice, Asm overexpression resulted in a social anxiogenic-like phenotype. Ceramides in male Asm-tgfb mice were elevated specifically in the dorsal hippocampus. mRNA expression analyses indicated that the increase in Asm activity affected other ceramide-generating pathways, which might help to balance ceramide levels in cortical brain regions. This forebrain-specific mouse model offers a novel tool for dissecting the molecular mechanisms that play a role in the pathophysiology of major depression.

Ceramides affect alcohol consumption and depressive-like and anxiety-like behavior in a brain region- and ceramide species-specific way in male mice.

Depression and alcohol dependence are associated with increased plasma ceramide concentrations in humans. Pharmacological increase in C16 ceramide concentrations in the dorsal hippocampus (DH) induced a depressive-like phenotype in naïve mice. However, the effects of C16 ceramide on alcohol consumption and anxiety-like behavior as well as the behavioral effects of other ceramide species are yet unknown. Therefore, we investigated whether repeated infusion of ceramides with different fatty acid chain lengths (C8, C16, and C20) into the DH and the basolateral amygdala (BLA) alter alcohol consumption, emotional behavior, and tissue monoamine levels. Our results revealed that C16, but not C8 and C20, ceramide altered alcohol drinking and emotional behavior in a brain region-specific way without altering tissue noradrenaline, dopamine, and serotonin levels in the prefrontal cortex, ventral striatum, and dorsal mesencephalon. In more detail, C16 ceramide increased alcohol consumption when infused into the BLA, but not when infused into the DH. Furthermore, C16 ceramide induced a depressive-like phenotype when infused into the DH, but a predominantly anxiogenic-like phenotype (in a non-social, but not a social context) when infused into the BLA. In turn, alcohol drinking normalized C16 ceramide-induced depressive-like and anxiogenic-like phenotypes. This study demonstrates a complex ceramide species-specific and brain region-specific modulation of alcohol consumption and emotional behavior in mice and provides the framework for future studies investigating the involvement of distinct ceramide species in the regulation of emotional behavior.

The Role of the N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptors in Social Behavior in Rodents.

The appropriate display of social behaviors is essential for the well-being, reproductive success and survival of an individual. Deficits in social behavior are associated with impaired N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor-mediated neurotransmission. In this review, we describe recent studies using genetically modified mice and pharmacological approaches which link the impaired functioning of the NMDA receptors, especially of the receptor subunits GluN1, GluN2A and GluN2B, to abnormal social behavior. This abnormal social behavior is expressed as impaired social interaction and communication, deficits in social memory, deficits in sexual and maternal behavior, as well as abnormal or heightened aggression. We also describe the positive effects of pharmacological stimulation of the NMDA receptors on these social deficits. Indeed, pharmacological stimulation of the glycine-binding site either by direct stimulation or by elevating the synaptic glycine levels represents a promising strategy for the normalization of genetically-induced, pharmacologically-induced or innate deficits in social behavior. We emphasize on the importance of future studies investigating the role of subunit-selective NMDA receptor ligands on different types of social behavior to provide a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms, which might support the development of selective tools for the optimized treatment of disorders associated with social deficits.

Neuropeptide Y reduces expression of social fear via simultaneous activation of Y1 and Y2 receptors.

BACKGROUND: Neuropeptide Y (NPY) has anxiolytic effects and facilitates extinction of cued and contextual fear in rodents, thereby acting as a resilience factor against exaggerated fear responses after adverse events. We investigated whether NPY influences acquisition, expression and extinction of social fear in a mouse model of social fear conditioning (SFC). METHODS: NPY was administered intracerebroventricularly before SFC or before social fear extinction with or without prior administration of Y1 and/or Y2 receptor antagonists. RESULTS: We show that NPY affects SFC-induced social fear in a time point-dependent manner. When administered before SFC, NPY did not affect acquisition, expression and extinction of social fear. However, when administered before social fear extinction, NPY reduced expression of social fear via simultaneous activation of Y1 and Y2 receptors. As such, neither the Y1 receptor antagonist BIBO3304 trifluoroacetate nor the Y2 receptor antagonist BIIE0246 was able to block the effects of NPY completely. However, when administered in combination, they completely blocked the effects of NPY on social fear expression. CONCLUSIONS: These findings have important clinical implications, as they suggest that although medication strategies aimed at increasing brain NPY activity are unlikely to prevent the formation of aversive memories after a traumatic social experience, they might improve the recovery from a traumatic social experience by reducing the expression of social fear.

Disrupted-in-Schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) Overexpression and Juvenile Immune Activation Cause Sex-Specific Schizophrenia-Related Psychopathology in Rats.

Synaptic pruning is a critical refinement step during neurodevelopment, and schizophrenia has been associated with overpruning of cortical dendritic spines. Both human studies and animal models implicate disrupted-in-schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) gene as a strong susceptibility factor for schizophrenia. Accumulating evidence supports the involvement of DISC1 protein in the modulation of synaptic elimination during critical periods of neurodevelopment and of dopamine D2-receptor-mediated signaling during adulthood. In many species, synaptic pruning occurs during juvenile and adolescent periods and is mediated by microglia, which can be over-activated by an immune challenge, giving rise to overpruning. Therefore, we sought to investigate possible interactions between a transgenic DISC1 model (tgDISC1) and juvenile immune activation (JIA) by the bacterial cell wall endotoxin lipopolysaccharide on the induction of schizophrenia-related behavioral and neurochemical disruptions in adult female and male rats. We examined possible behavioral aberrations along three major symptom dimensions of schizophrenia including psychosis, social and emotional disruptions, and cognitive impairments. We detected significant gene-environment interactions in the amphetamine-induced locomotion in female animals and in the amphetamine-induced anxiety in male animals. Surprisingly, gene-environment interactions improved social memory in both male and female animals. JIA alone disrupted spatial memory and recognition memory, but only in male animals. DISC1 overexpression alone induced an improvement in sensorimotor gating, but only in female animals. Our neurochemical analyses detected sex- and manipulation-dependent changes in the postmortem monoamine content of animals. Taken together, we here report sex-specific effects of environment and genotype as well as their interaction on behavioral phenotypes and neurochemical profiles relevant for schizophrenia.