Drought tolerance memory transmission by citrus buds.

Plants face recurrent drought events, and previous stresses can influence their responses to subsequent stress episodes. Studies on drought stress memory are recent in citriculture, although they show promise as a tool for crop improvement. Here, we investigated whether stress memory mechanisms can be detected in citrus plants grafted with buds from plants subjected to recurrent water deficit. Three rootstock varieties, namely 'Rangpur Santa Cruz' lime, 'Sunki Maravilha' mandarin and 'Sunki Tropical' mandarin, in combination with 'Valencia' orange, were either maintained under full irrigation or subjected to one, two, or three water deficit cycles. Buds from 'Valencia' orange were grafted onto 'Swingle' citrumelo rootstocks and were evaluated. This combination displayed improved physiological and biochemical performance under water limitation, especially 'Valencia' buds grafted onto 'Sunki Maravilha', with better photosynthetic performance under water deficit. These findings indicate that genotype-dependent epigenetic memory is a key factor in restoring citrus plants' capacity to rely on previous stress experiences to restore better photosynthetic and physiological responses when undergoing new water deficit events. Therefore, epigenetic marks can be stored and transmitted to new citrus plants and are a promising alternative to enable increased water deficit tolerance when plants are then challenged by drought-prone environments.

TcTI, a Kunitz-type trypsin inhibitor from cocoa associated with defense against pathogens.

Protease inhibitors (PIs) are important biotechnological tools of interest in agriculture. Usually they are the first proteins to be activated in plant-induced resistance against pathogens. Therefore, the aim of this study was to characterize a Theobroma cacao trypsin inhibitor called TcTI. The ORF has 740 bp encoding a protein with 219 amino acids, molecular weight of approximately 23 kDa. rTcTI was expressed in the soluble fraction of Escherichia coli strain Rosetta [DE3]. The purified His-Tag rTcTI showed inhibitory activity against commercial porcine trypsin. The kinetic model demonstrated that rTcTI is a competitive inhibitor, with a Ki value of 4.08 × 10-7 mol L-1. The thermostability analysis of rTcTI showed that 100% inhibitory activity was retained up to 60 °C and that at 70-80 °C, inhibitory activity remained above 50%. Circular dichroism analysis indicated that the protein is rich in loop structures and ß-conformations. Furthermore, in vivo assays against Helicoverpa armigera larvae were also performed with rTcTI in 0.1 mg mL-1 spray solutions on leaf surfaces, which reduced larval growth by 70% compared to the control treatment. Trials with cocoa plants infected with Mp showed a greater accumulation of TcTI in resistant varieties of T. cacao, so this regulation may be associated with different isoforms of TcTI. This inhibitor has biochemical characteristics suitable for biotechnological applications as well as in resistance studies of T. cacao and other crops.

Epigenetic responses to Phytophthora citrophthora gummosis in citrus.

Studies show that DNA methylation is associated with plant immunity but little is known as to how this epigenetic mechanism assists plants in adjusting their responses to biotic stress, especially when interacting with an hemibiotrophic pathogen such as citrus Phytophthora. The aim of the present study was to assess the effects of scion-rootstock interaction on plant resistance to P. citrophthora infection and DNA methylation patterns in 'Pera' sweet orange and 'Tahiti' acid lime grafted onto 'Rangpur' lime and 'Tropical' sunki rootstocks reinoculated with P. citrophthora. Results showed that reinoculated plants of the 'Pera' sweet orange/'Rangpur' lime and 'Tahiti' acid lime/'Tropical' sunki combinations with more and less sensitive varieties to Phytophthora, presented smaller stem lesions and increased frequency of full methylation and hemimethylation rates, compared to inoculated plants. In contrast, 'Tahiti' acid lime/'Rangpur' lime, two highly sensitive varieties, and 'Pera'/'Tropical' sunki, two much less sensitive varieties, showed high increases in the frequency of hemimethylation and non-methylation levels. Results suggest that in citrus, both the scion-rootstock interaction and DNA methylation affect the response to P. citrophthora infection. Reinoculated plants, depending on the combination, showed changes in intracellular hyphae growth through the formation of sets of fibers and crystal accumulation in the periderm, cortex, and phloem. In addition, starch grain concentration was higher in reinoculated plants in comparison to inoculated plants. These findings support the assumption that DNA methylation is a plant defense mechanism and therefore may be exploited to improve the response of plants to the gummosis of P. citrophthora in citrus.

Phylogenetic Origin of Primary and Secondary Metabolic Pathway Genes Revealed by C. maxima and C. reticulata Diagnostic SNPs.

Modern cultivated Citrus species and varieties result from interspecific hybridization between four ancestral taxa. Among them, Citrus maxima and Citrus reticulata, closely associated with the pummelo and mandarin horticultural groups, respectively, were particularly important as the progenitors of sour and sweet oranges (Citrus aurantium and Citrus sinensis), grapefruits (Citrus paradisi), and hybrid types resulting from modern breeding programs (tangors, tangelos, and orangelos). The differentiation between the four ancestral taxa and the phylogenomic structure of modern varieties widely drive the phenotypic diversity's organization. In particular, strong phenotypic differences exist in the coloration and sweetness and represent important criteria for breeders. In this context, focusing on the genes of the sugar, carotenoid, and chlorophyll biosynthesis pathways, the aim of this work was to develop a set of diagnostic single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers to distinguish the ancestral haplotypes of C. maxima and C. reticulata and to provide information at the intraspecific diversity level (within C. reticulata or C. maxima). In silico analysis allowed the identification of 3,347 SNPs from selected genes. Among them, 1,024 were detected as potential differentiation markers between C. reticulata and C. maxima. A total of 115 SNPs were successfully developed using a competitive PCR technology. Their transferability among all Citrus species and the true citrus genera was very good, with only 0.87% of missing data. The ancestral alleles of the SNPs were identified, and we validated the usefulness of the developed markers for tracing the ancestral haplotype in large germplasm collections and sexually recombined progeny issued from the C. reticulata/C. maxima admixture gene pool. These markers will pave the way for targeted association studies based on ancestral haplotypes.

Different adaptation strategies of two citrus scion/rootstock combinations in response to drought stress.

Scion/rootstock interaction is important for plant development and for breeding programs. In this context, polyploid rootstocks presented several advantages, mainly in relation to biotic and abiotic stresses. Here we analyzed the response to drought of two different scion/rootstock combinations presenting different polyploidy: the diploid (2x) and autotetraploid (4x) Rangpur lime (Citrus limonia, Osbeck) rootstocks grafted with 2x Valencia Delta sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) scions, named V/2xRL and V/4xRL, respectively. Based on previous gene expression data, we developed an interactomic approach to identify proteins involved in V/2xRL and V/4xRL response to drought. A main interactomic network containing 3,830 nodes and 97,652 edges was built from V/2xRL and V/4xRL data. Exclusive proteins of the V/2xRL and V/4xRL networks (2,056 and 1,001, respectively), as well as common to both networks (773) were identified. Functional clusters were obtained and two models of drought stress response for the V/2xRL and V/4xRL genotypes were designed. Even if the V/2xRL plant implement some tolerance mechanisms, the global plant response to drought was rapid and quickly exhaustive resulting in a general tendency to dehydration avoidance, which presented some advantage in short and strong drought stress conditions, but which, in long terms, does not allow the plant survival. At the contrary, the V/4xRL plants presented a response which strong impacts on development but that present some advantages in case of prolonged drought. Finally, some specific proteins, which presented high centrality on interactomic analysis were identified as good candidates for subsequent functional analysis of citrus genes related to drought response, as well as be good markers of one or another physiological mechanism implemented by the plants.

The pathogenesis-related protein PR-4b from Theobroma cacao presents RNase activity, Ca(2+) and Mg(2+) dependent-DNase activity and antifungal action on Moniliophthora perniciosa.

BACKGROUND: The production and accumulation of pathogenesis-related proteins (PR proteins) in plants in response to biotic or abiotic stresses is well known and is considered as a crucial mechanism for plant defense. A pathogenesis-related protein 4 cDNA was identified from a cacao-Moniliophthora perniciosa interaction cDNA library and named TcPR-4b. RESULTS: TcPR-4b presents a Barwin domain with six conserved cysteine residues, but lacks the chitin-binding site. Molecular modeling of TcPR-4b confirmed the importance of the cysteine residues to maintain the protein structure, and of several conserved amino acids for the catalytic activity. In the cacao genome, TcPR-4b belonged to a small multigene family organized mainly on chromosome 5. TcPR-4b RT-qPCR analysis in resistant and susceptible cacao plants infected by M. perniciosa showed an increase of expression at 48 hours after infection (hai) in both cacao genotypes. After the initial stage (24-72 hai), the TcPR-4b expression was observed at all times in the resistant genotypes, while in the susceptible one the expression was concentrated at the final stages of infection (45-90 days after infection). The recombinant TcPR-4b protein showed RNase, and bivalent ions dependent-DNase activity, but no chitinase activity. Moreover, TcPR-4b presented antifungal action against M. perniciosa, and the reduction of M. perniciosa survival was related to ROS production in fungal hyphae. CONCLUSION: To our knowledge, this is the first report of a PR-4 showing simultaneously RNase, DNase and antifungal properties, but no chitinase activity. Moreover, we showed that the antifungal activity of TcPR-4b is directly related to RNase function. In cacao, TcPR-4b nuclease activities may be related to the establishment and maintenance of resistance, and to the PCD mechanism, in resistant and susceptible cacao genotypes, respectively.

Hydrogen peroxide formation in cacao tissues infected by the hemibiotrophic fungus Moniliophthora perniciosa.

In plant-pathogen interaction, the hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) may play a dual role: its accumulation inhibits the growth of biotrophic pathogens, while it could help the infection/colonization process of plant by necrotrophic pathogens. One of the possible pathways of H2O production involves oxalic acid (Oxa) degradation by apoplastic oxalate oxidase. Here, we analyzed the production of H2O2, the presence of calcium oxalate (CaOx) crystals and the content of Oxa and ascorbic acid (Asa)--the main precursor of Oxa in plants--in susceptible and resistant cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) infected by the hemibiotrophic fungus Moniliophthora perniciosa. We also quantified the transcript level of ascorbate peroxidase (Apx), germin-like oxalate oxidase (Glp) and dehydroascorbate reductase (Dhar) by RT-qPCR. We report that the CaOx crystal amount and the H2O2 levels in the two varieties present distinct temporal and genotype-dependent patterns. Susceptible variety accumulated more CaOx crystals than the resistant one, and the dissolution of these crystals occurred in the early infection steps and in the final stage of the disease in the resistant and the susceptible variety, respectively. High expression of the Glp and accumulation of Oxa were observed in the resistant variety. The content of Asa increased in the inoculated susceptible variety, but remained constant in the resistant one. The susceptible variety presented reduced Dhar expression. The role of H2O2 and its formation from Oxa via Apx and Glp in resistant and susceptible variety infected by M. perniciosa were discussed.

Theobroma cacao cystatins impair Moniliophthora perniciosa mycelial growth and are involved in postponing cell death symptoms.

Three cystatin open reading frames named TcCys1, TcCys2 and TcCys3 were identified in cDNA libraries from compatible interactions between Theobroma cacao (cacao) and Moniliophthora perniciosa. In addition, an ORF named TcCys4 was identified in the cDNA library of the incompatible interaction. The cDNAs encoded conceptual proteins with 209, 127, 124, and 205 amino acid residues, with a deduced molecular weight of 24.3, 14.1, 14.3 and 22.8 kDa, respectively. His-tagged recombinant proteins were purified from Escherichia coli expression, and showed inhibitory activities against M. perniciosa. The four recombinant cystatins exhibited K(i) values against papain in the range of 152-221 nM. Recombinant TcCYS3 and TcCYS4 immobilized in CNBr-Sepharose were efficient to capture M. perniciosa proteases from culture media. Polyclonal antibodies raised against the recombinant TcCYS4 detected that the endogenous protein was more abundant in young cacao tissues, when compared with mature tissues. A ~85 kDa cacao multicystatin induced by M. perniciosa inoculation, MpNEP (necrosis and ethylene-inducing protein) and M. perniciosa culture supernatant infiltration were detected by anti-TcCYS4 antibodies in cacao young tissues. A direct role of the cacao cystatins in the defense against this phytopathogen was proposed, as well as its involvement in the development of symptoms of programmed cell death.

High-affinity copper transport and Snq2 export permease of saccharomyces cerevisiae modulate cytotoxicity of PR-10 from Theobroma cacao.

A pathogenesis-related (PR) protein from Theobroma cacao (TcPR-10) was identified from a cacao-Moniliophthora perniciosa interaction cDNA library. Nucleotide and amino acid sequences showed homology with other PR-10 proteins having P loop motif and Betv1 domain. Recombinant TcPR-10 showed in vitro and in vivo ribonuclease activity, and antifungal activity against the basidiomycete cacao pathogen M. perniciosa and the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled TcPR-10 was internalized by M. perniciosa hyphae and S. cerevisiae cells and inhibited growth of both fungi. Energy and temperature-dependent internalization of the TcPR-10 suggested an active importation into the fungal cells. Chronical exposure to TcPR-10 of 29 yeast mutants with single gene defects in DNA repair, general membrane transport, metal transport, and antioxidant defenses was tested. Two yeast mutants were hyperresistant compared with their respective isogenic wild type: ctr3Delta mutant, lacking the high-affinity plasma membrane copper transporter and mac1Delta, the copper-sensing transcription factor involved in regulation of high-affinity copper transport. Acute exposure of exponentially growing yeast cells revealed that TcPR-10 resistance is also enhanced in the Snq2 export permease-lacking mutant which has reduced intracellular presence of TcPR-10.