Elevated IGF-1 concentrations in children with low grade glioma: A descriptive analysis in a retrospective national cohort.

Children with low grade glioma (LGG) may present with, or develop, elevated concentrations of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). The prevalence, pathophysiology, or its possible clinical effects are poorly understood. Our aim was to evaluate the prevalence of such elevated IGF-1 concentrations and to describe its association with linear growth, body mass index (BMI), pituitary outcome, and tumor behavior in a large retrospective national cohort. From a nationwide retrospective cohort of pediatric brain tumor survivors diagnosed between 2002 and 2012, tumor, treatment, endocrine, and auxological data of children with LGG were collected (n = 358). Prevalence and risk factors for elevated IGF-1 concentrations, as well as the association between having elevated IGF-1 concentrations and receiving tumor treatment, were explored. IGF-1 concentrations had only been measured in 45.5% of cases (n = 163/358). In 18.4% of 163 children with available IGF-1 measurements, IGF-1 concentrations were found elevated. No association was described between having an elevated IGF-1 concentration and tumor behavior or height SDS at last moment of follow-up. Multivariate logistic regression identified posterior pituitary disorder (OR 6.14 95% CI: 2.21-17.09) and BMI SDS at follow-up (OR 1.56 95% CI: 1.09-2.20) to be significantly associated with elevated IGF-1 concentrations. In this retrospective cohort of children with LGG, IGF-1 was found elevated in 18.4% of children with available IGF-1 measurements. Elevated IGF-1 seems to be related to hypothalamic dysfunction worsening over time. Larger prospective cohort studies are needed.

Treatment and outcome of the Dutch Childhood Craniopharyngioma Cohort study: First results after centralization of care.

BACKGROUND: Childhood craniopharyngioma (cCP) has excellent survival, but quality of life may be severely hampered by hypothalamic dysfunction. We aimed to evaluate treatment and hypothalamic outcomes of a Dutch cCP cohort, and evaluate the effect of centralization of care. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study was performed, including cCP patients diagnosed between 2004 and 2021. Treatment characteristics and hypothalamic outcomes were evaluated and compared before and since centralization of care in May 2018. RESULTS: We included 87 cCP patients. Cyst drainage/fenestration was performed in 29.9%, limited resection in 27.6%, near-total resection in 16.1%, and gross total resection (GTR) in 25.4%. Radiotherapy was given in 46.0%. After a median follow-up of 6.5 years, hypothalamic obesity (HO) was present in 24.7% and panhypopituitarism with diabetes insipidus in 71.3%. Higher body mass index (BMI) SDS at diagnosis and Muller grade II at last magnetic resonance imaging of follow-up were associated with overweight/obesity. No association was found between extensiveness of resection and overweight/obesity at last follow-up. When comparing before and after centralization of care, rates of GTR remained similar, but BMI outcomes changed; mean ΔBMI SDS 1 year after diagnosis from 1.12 (SD 1.15) to 0.81 (SD 1.24), and HO after 1 year decreased from 33.3% to 12.0% (P = .067), and after 2 years from 28.6% to 6.7% (P = NS). CONCLUSIONS: In our nationwide cohort, GTR was performed in a relatively low percentage of patients and extensiveness of resection was no longer associated with HO at follow-up. A trend toward improvement of BMI is observed since centralization of care, which needs further exploration.

Safety of Growth Hormone Replacement Therapy in Childhood-Onset Craniopharyngioma: A Systematic Review and Cohort Study.

INTRODUCTION: Survival of childhood-onset craniopharyngioma (cCP) is excellent; however, many survivors suffer from hypothalamic-pituitary dysfunction. Growth hormone replacement therapy (GHRT) is of high importance for linear growth and metabolic outcome. Optimal timing for initiation of GHRT in cCP is on debate because of concerns regarding tumor progression or recurrence. METHODS: A systematic review and cohort studys were performed for the effect and timing of GHRT on overall mortality, tumor progression/recurrence, and secondary tumors in cCP. Within the cohort, cCP receiving GHRT ≤1 year after diagnosis were compared to those receiving GHRT >1 year after diagnosis. RESULTS: Evidence of 18 included studies, reporting on 6,603 cCP with GHRT, suggests that GHRT does not increase the risk for overall mortality, progression, or recurrent disease. One study evaluated timing of GHRT and progression/recurrence-free survival and found no increased risk with earlier initiation. One study reported a higher than expected prevalence of secondary intracranial tumors compared to a healthy population, possibly confounded by radiotherapy. In our cohort, 75 of 87 cCP (86.2%) received GHRT for median of 4.9 years [0.0-17.1]. No effect of timing of GHRT was found on mortality, progression/recurrence-free survival, or secondary tumors. CONCLUSION: Although the quality of the evidence is low, the available evidence suggests no effect of GHRT or its timing on mortality, tumor progression/recurrence, or secondary neoplasms in cCP. These results support early initiation of GHRT in cCP aiming to optimize linear growth and metabolic outcome. Prospective studies are needed to increase the level of evidence upon the optimal timing to start GHRT in cCP patients.

Could deep brain stimulation be a possible solution for acquired hypothalamic obesity?

Objective: Hypothalamic dysfunction may result in morbid obesity as a consequence of decreased energy expenditure, decreased feelings of satiety, and increased fat storage. In patients with hypothalamic dysfunction, neurobehavioral dysfunction is also often present. Currently, no effective treatment has been found for hypothalamic obesity (HO). We hypothesize that deep brain stimulation (DBS) may be an effective treatment for patients with hypothalamic dysfunction, aiming to treat HO as well as the neurobehavioral dysfunction. Methods: A systematic search was conducted in the PubMed, EMBASE and Cochrane Library databases for studies published until May 2022 reporting on DBS for the treatment of HO. Results: Three studies met the predetermined inclusion criteria, with in total six patients treated with DBS for HO, of which five patients with Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) and one patient with HO after treatment for craniopharyngioma (CP). Targets of DBS included the lateral hypothalamic area (LHA) and the nucleus accumbens (NAcc). In patients with PWS, LHA-DBS was associated with a mean increase of Body Mass Index (BMI) (+5.8%), with no change in hormonal levels, results of blood workup, sleep, or neuropsychological evaluation. In the patient with CP, NAcc-DBS was associated with a decrease in BMI (-8.7%) and a subjective increase in mental health, energy and willingness to act, and no feeling of increased appetite. No objective measurements on neurobehavioral function were reported. No severe adverse events were reported in these cases. Mild to moderate adverse events included hypomanic symptoms and infection. All patients with a described follow-up period (n = 5) were able to sustain the treatment for at least 6 months with few interruptions. Conclusion: There is limited research reporting on DBS for HO. The effectiveness differed across studies and the evidence is limited. Although there may be potential for DBS treatment in the severe-refractory condition of HO in patients with CP, more research is needed for target selection and evaluation of effectiveness.

Diagnostic criteria for the hypothalamic syndrome in childhood.

OBJECTIVE: Hypothalamic syndrome (HS) in childhood is a rare condition. Its epidemiology is not well known because incidence and prevalence are related to very rare underlying diseases. In addition, different criteria for the syndrome are used across studies. Recognizing the HS may be difficult, due to its rareness and variety of symptoms. Having diagnostic criteria for signs and symptoms of hypothalamic dysfunction may aid in early recognition and diagnosis, in the reporting and understanding of its etiology, in predicting its course and its management. We aimed to define diagnostic criteria for hypothalamic dysfunction and a score for the presence of HS in childhood. METHODS: Diagnostic criteria for hypothalamic dysfunction were developed and subdivided into hyperphagia, hypophagia, body mass index, behavioral problems, sleep disorders, temperature regulation disorders, pituitary dysfunction, radiological hypothalamic assessment, and presence/suspicion of a hypothalamic genetic syndrome. Subsequently, the scoring system was tested in a retrospective cohort of 120 patients at risk for hypothalamic dysfunction. RESULTS: A score for presence of HS was developed. Using this new hypothalamic score, in total 52.5% were scored as having HS. Of these patients, 76.7% were diagnosed with pituitary dysfunction, 32.5% with hyperphagia, 40% with sleep disorders, and 14.2% with temperature dysregulation. For several criteria, clinical data was missing in more than 50% of cases. CONCLUSIONS: The here proposed diagnostic criteria for hypothalamic dysfunction and score for presence of HS may be used for care purposes and to aid in early recognition. Also it will be useful for research or registration purposes.

Dextroamphetamine Treatment in Children With Hypothalamic Obesity.

Introduction: Hypothalamic obesity (HO) in children has severe health consequences. Lifestyle interventions are mostly insufficient and currently no drug treatment is approved for children with HO. Amphetamines are known for their stimulant side-effect on resting energy expenditure (REE) and suppressing of appetite. Earlier case series have shown positive effects of amphetamines on weight in children with acquired HO. We present our experiences with dextroamphetamine treatment in the, up to now, largest cohort of children with HO. Methods: A retrospective cohort evaluation was performed of children with HO treated with dextroamphetamine at two academic endocrine pediatric clinics. Off-label use of dextroamphetamine was initiated in patients with progressive, therapy-resistant acquired or congenital HO. Anthropometrics, REE, self-reported (hyperphagic) behavior and energy level, and side effects were assessed at start and during treatment. Results: Nineteen patients with a mean age of 12.3 ± 4.0 years had been treated with dextroamphetamine. In two patients, ΔBMI SDS could not be evaluated due to short treatment duration or the simultaneous start of extensive lifestyle treatment. Mean treatment duration of the 17 evaluated patients was 23.7 ± 12.7 months. Fourteen patients (n = 10 with acquired HO, n = 4 with congenital HO) responded by BMI decline or BMI stabilization (mean ΔBMI SDS of -0.6 ± 0.8, after a mean period of 22.4 ± 10.5 months). In three patients, BMI SDS increased (mean ΔBMI SDS of +0.5 ± 0.1, after a mean period of 29.7 ± 22.6 months). In 11 responders, measured REE divided by predicted REE increased with +8.9%. Thirteen patients (68.4%) reported decreased hyperphagia, improvement of energy level and/or behavior during treatment. Two patients developed hypertension during treatment, which resulted in dosage adjustment or discontinuation of treatment. Twelve children continued treatment at last moment of follow-up. Conclusion: In addition to supportive lifestyle interventions, dextroamphetamine treatment may improve BMI in children with HO. Furthermore, dextroamphetamines have the potential to decrease hyperphagia and improve resting energy expenditure, behavior, and energy level. In patients with acquired HO, these effects seem to be more pronounced when compared to patients with congenital HO. Future studies are needed to support these results.

Hypothalamic-Pituitary Outcome after Treatment for Childhood Craniopharyngioma.

Although childhood-onset craniopharyngioma is a low-grade intracranial tumor with excellent prognosis in terms of overall survival, survivors may suffer from devastating consequences caused by hypothalamic damage. Disease- or treatment-related hypothalamic damage leads to disturbed hunger-satiety and thirst feelings, decreased energy expenditure, behavioral problems, disturbances of circadian rhythm, temperature dysregulation, and pituitary dysfunction. These children are at great risk for developing the metabolic syndrome and comorbidities leading to premature mortality. In this chapter, we shall discuss hypothalamic-pituitary morbidity and outcome of childhood-onset craniopharyngioma patients and future perspectives for improvement.

High Prevalence of Weight Gain in Childhood Brain Tumor Survivors and Its Association With Hypothalamic-Pituitary Dysfunction.

PURPOSE: Childhood brain tumor survivors (CBTS) are at risk for developing obesity, which negatively influences cardiometabolic health. The prevalence of obesity in CBTS may have been overestimated in previous cohorts because of inclusion of children with craniopharyngioma. On the contrary, the degree of weight gain may have been underestimated because of exclusion of CBTS who experienced weight gain, but were neither overweight nor obese. Weight gain may be an indicator of underlying hypothalamic-pituitary (HP) dysfunction. We aimed to study prevalence of and risk factors for significant weight gain, overweight, or obesity, and its association with HP dysfunction in a national cohort of noncraniopharyngioma and nonpituitary CBTS. METHODS: Prevalence of and risk factors for significant weight gain (body mass index [BMI] change ≥ +2.0 standard deviation score [SDS]), overweight, or obesity at follow-up, and its association with HP dysfunction were studied in a nationwide cohort of CBTS, diagnosed in a 10-year period (2002-2012), excluding all craniopharyngioma and pituitary tumors. RESULTS: Of 661 CBTS, with a median age at follow-up of 7.3 years, 33.1% had significant weight gain, overweight, or obesity. Of the CBTS between 4 and 20 years of age, 28.7% were overweight or obese, compared with 13.2% of the general population between 4 and 20 years of age. BMI SDS at diagnosis, diagnosis of low-grade glioma, diabetes insipidus, and central precocious puberty were associated with weight gain, overweight, or obesity. The prevalence of HP dysfunction was higher in overweight and obese CTBS compared with normal-weight CBTS. CONCLUSION: Overweight, obesity, and significant weight gain are prevalent in CBTS. An increase in BMI during follow-up may be a reflection of HP dysfunction, necessitating more intense endocrine surveillance.

Experiences with Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonist in Children with Acquired Hypothalamic Obesity.

OBJECTIVE: Hypothalamic obesity (HO) in children after treatment for a tumor in the suprasellar region has severe implications. Previous studies have shown various effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist in acquired HO, but in adults only. We present our experience of GLP-1 receptor agonist (exenatide) treatment during a 1-year period on body mass index (BMI) in children with acquired HO. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Children with severe weight gain after treatment for suprasellar tumor were given 2 mg exenatide weekly for a 12-month period. All had undergone previous dietary intervention. BMI standard deviation score (SDS), weight change, and adverse effects were assessed. RESULTS: Five children with a mean age of 15.4 years (range 13-18) and a mean follow-up time of 8.4 years (mean age of 7.0 years at the time of brain tumor diagnosis) were treated with GLP-1 receptor agonist. After 1 year, BMI SDS or absolute weight had not changed significantly compared to the period without treatment (BMI SDS change +0.005, 95% CI -0.07 to 0.08, p = 0.89, and absolute weight change +1.5 kg, 95% CI -0.08 to 3.1, p = 0.061). Only 1 patient experienced weight loss after 1 year (-5.4 kg, BMI SDS -0.33). All patients experienced mild side effects, such as injection pain or nausea, and 2 patients stopped treatment upon their own request after 8 and 11 months, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: In this small cohort, we found little effect of GLP-1 receptor agonist in the treatment for acquired HO. Future research should focus on the prevention of HO or, if prevention is not possible, on alternative, individualized interventions.