Multiple stressors alter greenhouse gas concentrations in streams through local and distal processes.

Streams are significant contributors of greenhouse gases (GHG) to the atmosphere, and the increasing number of stressors degrading freshwaters may exacerbate this process, posing a threat to climatic stability. However, it is unclear whether the influence of multiple stressors on GHG concentrations in streams results from increases of in-situ metabolism (i.e., local processes) or from changes in upstream and terrestrial GHG production (i.e., distal processes). Here, we hypothesize that the mechanisms controlling multiple stressor effects vary between carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), with the latter being more influenced by changes in local stream metabolism, and the former mainly responding to distal processes. To test this hypothesis, we measured stream metabolism and the concentrations of CO2 (pCO2) and CH4 (pCH4) in 50 stream sites that encompass gradients of nutrient enrichment, oxygen depletion, thermal stress, riparian degradation and discharge. Our results indicate that these stressors had additive effects on stream metabolism and GHG concentrations, with stressor interactions explaining limited variance. Nutrient enrichment was associated with higher stream heterotrophy and pCO2, whereas pCH4 increased with oxygen depletion and water temperature. Discharge was positively linked to primary production, respiration and heterotrophy but correlated negatively with pCO2. Our models indicate that CO2-equivalent concentrations can more than double in streams that experience high nutrient enrichment and oxygen depletion, compared to those with oligotrophic and oxic conditions. Structural equation models revealed that the effects of nutrient enrichment and discharge on pCO2 were related to distal processes rather than local metabolism. In contrast, pCH4 responses to nutrient enrichment, discharge and temperature were related to both local metabolism and distal processes. Collectively, our study illustrates potential climatic feedbacks resulting from freshwater degradation and provides insight into the processes mediating stressor impacts on the production of GHG in streams.

Os rios são grandes emissores de gases com efeito de estufa (GEE) para a atmosfera, e o crescente número de agentes de stress que degradam os rios pode exacerbar este processo, e constituir uma ameaça à estabilidade climática. No entanto, não é claro se o efeito dos impactos humanos nas concentrações de GEE na água está associado ao aumento do metabolismo local do rio (processos locais) ou ao aumento da produção de GEE nas zonas a montante dos rios ou nas zonas terrestres adjacentes (processos distais). A nossa hipótese é que os mecanismos que controlam os efeitos dos impactos humanos na emissão de GEE variam entre o dióxido de carbono (CO2) e o metano (CH4). A nossa previsão é que o CO2 responde principalmente a processos distais, enquanto o CH4 é mais influenciado por alterações no metabolismo local dos cursos de água. Para avaliar esta hipótese, medimos o metabolismo aquático e as concentrações de CO2 (pCO2) e CH4 (pCH4) em 50 rios que abrangem gradientes de enriquecimento em nutrientes, depleção de oxigénio, stress térmico, degradação da zona ribeirinha e caudal. Os nossos resultados indicam que estes agentes de stress tiveram efeitos aditivos no metabolismo e nas concentrações de GEE nos rios, e que as interações entre os agentes de stress tiveram pouca capacidade preditiva. O enriquecimento em nutrientes foi associado a um aumento da heterotrofia e pCO2, enquanto o pCH4 aumentou com a depleção de oxigénio e com a temperatura da água. O caudal estava positivamente correlacionado com a produção primária, a respiração e a heterotrofia, mas negativamente correlacionado com o pCO2. Os nossos modelos indicam que as concentrações equivalentes de CO2 podem duplicar em rios eutrofizados e com baixa concentração de oxigénio, em comparação com os rios oligotróficos e com águas bem oxigenadas. A aplicação de modelos de equações estruturais mostrou que os efeitos do enriquecimento em nutrientes e do caudal no pCO2 estavam relacionados com processos distais e não com o metabolismo local. Em contrapartida, as respostas do pCH4 ao enriquecimento de nutrientes, ao caudal e à temperatura estavam relacionadas tanto com o metabolismo local como com processos distais. O nosso estudo demonstra que a degradação dos rios e dos ecossistemas ribeirinhos pode ter efeitos negativos na estabilidade climática e fornece informação relevante sobre os processos biogeoquímicos que medeiam os impactos humanos na produção de GEE nos rios.

Treated and highly diluted, but wastewater still impacts diversity and energy fluxes of freshwater food webs.

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have greatly improved water quality globally. However, treated effluents still contain a complex cocktail of pollutants whose environmental effects might go unnoticed, masked by additional stressors in the receiving waters or by spatiotemporal variability. We conducted a BACI (Before-After/Control-Impact) ecosystem manipulation experiment, where we diverted part of the effluent of a large tertiary WWTP into a small, unpolluted stream to assess the effects of a well-treated and highly diluted effluent on riverine diversity and food web dynamics. We sampled basal food resources, benthic invertebrates and fish to search for changes on the structure and energy transfer of the food web with the effluent. Although effluent toxicity was low, it reduced diversity, increased primary production and herbivory, and reduced energy fluxes associated to terrestrial inputs. Altogether, the effluent decreased total energy fluxes in stream food webs, showing that treated wastewater can lead to important ecosystem-level changes, affecting the structure and functioning of stream communities even at high dilution rates. The present study shows that current procedures to treat wastewater can still affect freshwater ecosystems and highlights the need for further efforts to treat polluted waters to conserve aquatic food webs.

A global synthesis of human impacts on the multifunctionality of streams and rivers.

Human impacts, particularly nutrient pollution and land-use change, have caused significant declines in the quality and quantity of freshwater resources. Most global assessments have concentrated on species diversity and composition, but effects on the multifunctionality of streams and rivers remain unclear. Here, we analyse the most comprehensive compilation of stream ecosystem functions to date to provide an overview of the responses of nutrient uptake, leaf litter decomposition, ecosystem productivity, and food web complexity to six globally pervasive human stressors. We show that human stressors inhibited ecosystem functioning for most stressor-function pairs. Nitrate uptake efficiency was most affected and was inhibited by 347% due to agriculture. However, concomitant negative and positive effects were common even within a given stressor-function pair. Some part of this variability in effect direction could be explained by the structural heterogeneity of the landscape and latitudinal position of the streams. Ranking human stressors by their absolute effects on ecosystem multifunctionality revealed significant effects for all studied stressors, with wastewater effluents (194%), agriculture (148%), and urban land use (137%) having the strongest effects. Our results demonstrate that we are at risk of losing the functional backbone of streams and rivers if human stressors persist in contemporary intensity, and that freshwaters are losing critical ecosystem services that humans rely on. We advocate for more studies on the effects of multiple stressors on ecosystem multifunctionality to improve the functional understanding of human impacts. Finally, freshwater management must shift its focus toward an ecological function-based approach and needs to develop strategies for maintaining or restoring ecosystem functioning of streams and rivers.

Water diversion and pollution interactively shape freshwater food webs through bottom-up mechanisms.

Water diversion and pollution are two pervasive stressors in river ecosystems that often co-occur. Individual effects of both stressors on basal resources available to stream communities have been described, with diversion reducing detritus standing stocks and pollution increasing biomass of primary producers. However, interactive effects of both stressors on the structure and trophic basis of food webs remain unknown. We hypothesized that the interaction between both stressors increases the contribution of the green pathway in stream food webs. Given the key role of the high-quality, but less abundant, primary producers, we also hypothesized an increase in food web complexity with larger trophic diversity in the presence of water diversion and pollution. To test these hypotheses, we selected four rivers in a range of pollution subject to similar water diversion schemes, and we compared food webs upstream and downstream of the diversion. We characterized food webs by means of stable isotope analysis. Both stressors directly changed the availability of basal resources, with water diversion affecting the brown food web by decreasing detritus stocks, and pollution enhancing the green food web by promoting biofilm production. The propagation of the effects at the base of the food web to higher trophic levels differed between stressors. Water diversion had little effect on the structure of food webs, but pollution increased food chain length and trophic diversity, and reduced trophic redundancy. The effects at higher trophic levels were exacerbated when combining both stressors, as the relative contribution of biofilm to the stock of basal resources increased even further. Overall, we conclude that moderate pollution increases food web complexity and that the interaction with water abstraction seems to amplify this effect. Our study shows the importance of assessing the interaction between stressors to create predictive tools for a proper management of ecosystems.

Cross-continental importance of CH4 emissions from dry inland-waters.

Despite substantial advances in quantifying greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from dry inland waters, existing estimates mainly consist of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. However, methane (CH4) may also be relevant due to its higher Global Warming Potential (GWP). We report CH4 emissions from dry inland water sediments to i) provide a cross-continental estimate of such emissions for different types of aquatic systems (i.e., lakes, ponds, reservoirs, and streams) and climate zones (i.e., tropical, continental, and temperate); and ii) determine the environmental factors that control these emissions. CH4 emissions from dry inland waters were consistently higher than emissions observed in adjacent uphill soils, across climate zones and in all aquatic systems except for streams. However, the CH4 contribution (normalized to CO2 equivalents; CO2-eq) to the total GHG emissions of dry inland waters was similar for all types of aquatic systems and varied from 10 to 21%. Although we discuss multiple controlling factors, dry inland water CH4 emissions were most strongly related to sediment organic matter content and moisture. Summing CO2 and CH4 emissions revealed a cross-continental average emission of 9.6 ± 17.4 g CO2-eq m-2 d-1 from dry inland waters. We argue that increasing droughts likely expand the worldwide surface area of atmosphere-exposed aquatic sediments, thereby increasing global dry inland water CH4 emissions. Hence, CH4 cannot be ignored if we want to fully understand the carbon (C) cycle of dry sediments.

Interactive effects of discharge reduction and fine sediments on stream biofilm metabolism.

Discharge reduction, as caused by water diversion for hydropower, and fine sediments deposition, are prevalent stressors that may affect multiple ecosystem functions in streams. Periphytic biofilms play a key role in stream ecosystem functioning and are potentially affected by these stressors and their interaction. We experimentally assessed the interactive effects of discharge and fine sediments on biofilm metabolism in artificial indoor channels using a factorial split-plot design with two explanatory variables: water discharge (20, 39, 62, 141 and 174 cm3 s-1) and fine sediments (no sediment or 1100 mg L-1 of sediments). We incubated artificial tiles for 25 days in an unpolluted stream to allow biofilm colonization, and then placed them into the indoor channels for acclimation for 18 days. Subsequently, we manipulated water discharge and fine sediments and, after 17 days, we measured biofilm chlorophyll-a concentration and metabolism. Water velocity (range, 0.5 to 3.0 cm s-1) and sediment deposition (range, 6.1 to 16.6 mg cm-2) increased with discharge, the latter showing that the effect of increased inputs prevailed over sloughing. In the no-sediment treatments, discharge did not affect biofilm metabolism, but reduced chlorophyll-a. Sediments, probably as a consequence of nutrients released, promoted metabolism of biofilm and chlorophyll-a, which became independent of water discharge. Our results indicate that pulses of fine sediments can promote biofilm algal biomass and metabolism, but show interactive effects with discharge. Although discharge reduction can affect the abundance of basal resources for food webs, its complex interactions with fine sediments make it difficult to forecast the extent and direction of the changes.

Combined effects of urban pollution and hydrological stress on ecosystem functions of Mediterranean streams.

Urban pollution and hydrological stress are common stressors of stream ecosystems, but their combined effects on ecosystem functioning are still unclear. We measured a set of functional processes and accompanying environmental variables in locations upstream and downstream of urban sewage inputs in 13 streams covering a wide range of water pollution levels and hydrological variability. Sewage inputs seriously impaired stream chemical characteristics and led to complex effects on ecosystem functioning. Biofilm biomass accrual, whole-reach nutrient uptake and metabolism (ecosystem respiration) were generally subsidized, whereas organic matter decomposition and biofilm phosphorus uptake capacity decreased with increasing pollutant concentrations. Hydrological stress affected stream ecosystem functioning but its effect was minor compared to the effects of urban pollution, due to the large inter-site variability of the streams. Changes appeared mainly linked to the concentration of pharmaceutically active compounds, followed by other chemical characteristics and by hydrology. The results point to the need to further improve sewage treatment, especially as climate change will stress riverine organisms and reduce the dilution capacity of the receiving streams.

Impact of wastewater effluent pollution on stream functioning: A whole-ecosystem manipulation experiment.

The ecological effects of wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents on stream ecosystems cause growing concern. However, it is difficult to assess these effects as most streams receiving WWTP effluents are also affected by other stressors. We performed a whole-ecosystem manipulation experiment following a BACI design (Before-After/Control-Impact) in order to exclude the influence of other potentially confounding factors. We diverted part of the effluent of a large tertiary urban WWTP into a small, unpolluted stream, and studied its effects on ecosystem structure and functioning over two years (i.e., one year before and one year after the effluent diversion). Although highly diluted (final concentration in the receiving stream averaged 3%), the effluent promoted biofilm chlorophyll-a and biomass (2.3 and 2.1 times, respectively), exo-enzymatic activities (phosphatase 2.2 and glucosidase 4.2 times) and invertebrate-mediated organic matter decomposition (1.4 times), but reduced phosphorus uptake capacity of the epilithic biofilm down to 0.5 of the initial values. Biofilm metabolism, reach-scale nutrient uptake and microbially-mediated organic matter decomposition were not affected. Our results indicate that even well treated and highly diluted WWTP effluents can also affect the structure of the biofilm community and stream ecosystem functioning.

Simulating rewetting events in intermittent rivers and ephemeral streams: A global analysis of leached nutrients and organic matter.

Climate change and human pressures are changing the global distribution and the extent of intermittent rivers and ephemeral streams (IRES), which comprise half of the global river network area. IRES are characterized by periods of flow cessation, during which channel substrates accumulate and undergo physico-chemical changes (preconditioning), and periods of flow resumption, when these substrates are rewetted and release pulses of dissolved nutrients and organic matter (OM). However, there are no estimates of the amounts and quality of leached substances, nor is there information on the underlying environmental constraints operating at the global scale. We experimentally simulated, under standard laboratory conditions, rewetting of leaves, riverbed sediments, and epilithic biofilms collected during the dry phase across 205 IRES from five major climate zones. We determined the amounts and qualitative characteristics of the leached nutrients and OM, and estimated their areal fluxes from riverbeds. In addition, we evaluated the variance in leachate characteristics in relation to selected environmental variables and substrate characteristics. We found that sediments, due to their large quantities within riverbeds, contribute most to the overall flux of dissolved substances during rewetting events (56%-98%), and that flux rates distinctly differ among climate zones. Dissolved organic carbon, phenolics, and nitrate contributed most to the areal fluxes. The largest amounts of leached substances were found in the continental climate zone, coinciding with the lowest potential bioavailability of the leached OM. The opposite pattern was found in the arid zone. Environmental variables expected to be modified under climate change (i.e. potential evapotranspiration, aridity, dry period duration, land use) were correlated with the amount of leached substances, with the strongest relationship found for sediments. These results show that the role of IRES should be accounted for in global biogeochemical cycles, especially because prevalence of IRES will increase due to increasing severity of drying events.

Immediate and legacy effects of urban pollution on river ecosystem functioning: A mesocosm experiment.

Effluents from urban wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) consist of complex mixtures of substances that can affect processes in the receiving ecosystems. Some of these substances (toxic contaminants) stress biological activity at all concentrations, while others (e.g., nutrients) subsidize it at low concentrations and stress it above a threshold, causing subsidy-stress responses. Thus, the overall effects of WWTP effluents depend mostly on their composition and the dilution capacity of the receiving water bodies. We assessed the immediate and legacy effects of WWTP effluents in artificial streams, where we measured the uptake of soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) by the biofilm, biomass accrual, benthic metabolism and organic matter decomposition (OMD). In a first phase (32 d), the channels were subjected to a gradient of effluent contribution, from pure stream water to pure effluent. WWTP effluent affected the ecosystem processes we measured, although we found no clear subsidy-stress patterns except for biofilm biomass accrual. Instead, most of the processes were subsidized, although they showed complex and process-specific patterns. Benthic metabolism and OMD were subsidized without saturation, as they peaked at medium and high levels of pollution, respectively, but they never fell below control levels. SRP uptake was the only process that decreased with increasing effluent concentration. In a second phase of the experiment (23 d), all channels were kept on pure stream water to analyse the legacy effects of the effluent. For most of the processes, there were clear legacy effects, which followed either subsidy, stress, or subsidy-stress patterns. SRP uptake capacity was stressed with increasing pollution legacy, whereas algal accrual and benthic metabolism continued being subsidized. Conversely, biofilm biomass accrual and OMD showed no legacy effects. Overall, the WWTP effluent caused complex and process-specific responses in our experiment, mainly driven by the mixed contribution of subsidizers and stressors. These results help improving our understanding of the effects of urban pollution on stream ecosystem functioning.

Multiple stressor effects on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in a Mediterranean temporary river.

The hydrological and biological complexity of temporary rivers as well as their importance in providing goods and services is increasingly recognized, as much as it is the vulnerability of the biotic communities in view of climate change and increased anthropogenic pressures. However, the effects of flow intermittency (resulting from both seasonal variations and rising hydrological pressure) and pollution on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning have been overlooked in these ecosystems. We explore the way multiple stressors affect biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, as well as the biodiversity-ecosystem functioning (B-EF) relationship in a Mediterranean temporary river. We measured diversity of benthic communities (i.e. diatoms and macroinvertebrates) and related ecosystem processes (i.e. resource use efficiency-RUE and organic matter breakdown-OMB) across a pollution and flow intermittency gradient. Our results showed decreases in macroinvertebrate diversity and the opposite trend in diatom assemblages, whereas ecosystem functioning was negatively affected by both pollution and flow intermittency. The explored B-EF relationships showed contrasting results: RUE decreased with higher diatom diversity, whereas OMB increased with increased macroinvertebrate diversity. The different responses suggest contrasting operating mechanisms, selection effects possibly driving the B-EF relationship in diatoms and complementarity effects driving the B-EF relationship in macroinvertebrates. The understanding of multiple stressor effects on diversity and ecosystem functioning, as well as the B-EF relationship in temporary rivers could provide insights on the risks affecting ecosystem functioning under global change.

Drying and Rainfall Shape the Structure and Functioning of Nitrifying Microbial Communities in Riverbed Sediments.

Non-flow periods in fluvial ecosystems are a global phenomenon. Streambed drying and rewetting by sporadic rainfalls could drive considerable changes in the microbial communities that govern stream nitrogen (N) availability at different temporal and spatial scales. We performed a microcosm-based experiment to investigate how dry period duration (DPD) (0, 3, 6, and 9 weeks) and magnitude of sporadic rewetting by rainfall (0, 4, and 21 mm applied at end of dry period) affected stocks of N in riverbed sediments, ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) and archaea (AOA) and rates of ammonia oxidation (AO), and emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O) to the atmosphere. While ammonium (NH4 +) pool size decreased, nitrate (NO3 -) pool size increased in sediments with progressive drying. Concomitantly, the relative and absolute abundance of AOB and, especially, AOA (assessed by 16S rRNA gene sequencing and quantitative PCR of ammonia monooxygenase genes) increased, despite an apparent decrease of AO rates with drying. An increase of N2O emissions occurred at early drying before substantially dropping until the end of the experiment. Strong rainfall of 21 mm increased AO rates and NH4 + in sediments, whereas modest rainfall of 4 mm triggered a notable increase of N2O fluxes. Interestingly, such responses were detected only after 6 and 9 weeks of drying. Our results demonstrate that progressive drying drives considerable changes in in-stream N cycling and the associated nitrifying microbial communities, and that sporadic rainfall can modulate these effects. Our findings are particularly relevant for N processing and transport in rivers with alternating dry and wet phases - a hydrological scenario expected to become more important in the future.

Testing wastewater treatment plant effluent effects on microbial and detritivore performance: A combined field and laboratory experiment.

The amount of pollutants and nutrients entering rivers via point sources is increasing along with human population and activity. Although wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) greatly reduce pollutant loads into the environment, excess nutrient loading is a problem in many streams. Using a Community and Ecosystem Function (CEF) approach, we quantified the effects of WWTP effluent on the performance of microbes and detritivores associated to organic matter decomposition, a key ecosystem process. We measured organic matter breakdown rates, respiration rates and exo-enzymatic activities of aquatic microbes. We also measured food consumption and growth rates and RNA to body-mass ratios (RNA:BM) of a dominant amphipod Echinogammarus berilloni. We predicted responses to follow a subsidy-stress pattern and differences between treatments to increase over time. To examine temporal effects of effluent, we performed a laboratory microcosm experiment under a range of effluent concentrations (0, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100%), taking samples over time (days 8, 15 and 30; 4 and 10 replicates to assess microbe and detritivore performance respectively, per treatment and day). This experiment was combined with a field in situ Before-After Control-Impact Paired (BACIP) experiment whereby we added WWTP effluent poured (10 L s-1 during 20-40 min every 2 h) into a stream and collected microbial and detritivore samples at days 8 and 15 (5 and 15 replicates to assess the microbe and detritivore performance respectively, per period, reach and sampling day). Responses were clearer in the laboratory experiment, where the effluent caused a general subsidy response. Field measures did not show any significant response, probably because of the high dilution of the effluent in stream water (average of 1.6%). None of the measured variables in any of the experiments followed the predicted subsidy-stress response. Microbial breakdown, respiration rates, exo-enzymatic activities and invertebrate RNA:BM increased with effluent concentrations. Differences in microbial respiration and exo-enzymatic activities among effluent treatments increased with incubation time, whereas microbial breakdown rates and RNA:BM were consistent over time. At the end of the laboratory experiment, microbial respiration rates increased 156% and RN:BM 115% at 100% effluent concentration. Detritivore consumption and growth rates increased asymptotically, and both responses increased with by incubation time. Our results indicate that WWTP effluent stimulates microbial activities and alters detritivore performance, and stream water dilution may mitigate these effects.

Understanding the effects of predictability, duration, and spatial pattern of drying on benthic invertebrate assemblages in two contrasting intermittent streams.

In the present study, we examined the effects of different drying conditions on the composition, structure and function of benthic invertebrate assemblages. We approached this objective by comparing invertebrate assemblages in perennial and intermittent sites along two intermittent Mediterranean streams with contrasting predictability, duration, and spatial patterns of drying: Fuirosos (high predictability, short duration, downstream drying pattern) and Rogativa (low predictability, long duration, patchy drying pattern). Specifically, we quantified the contribution of individual taxa to those differences, the degree of nestedness, and shifts in the composition, structure and function of benthic invertebrate assemblages along flow intermittence gradients. We observed greater effects of drying on the benthic invertebrate composition in Fuirosos than in Rogativa, resulting in a higher dissimilarity of assemblages between perennial and intermittent sites, as well as a lower degree of nestedness. Furthermore, a higher number of biotic metrics related to richness, abundance and biological traits were significantly different between perennial and intermittent sites in Fuirosos, despite a shorter dry period compared to Rogativa. At the same time, slightly different responses were detected during post-drying (autumn) than pre-drying (spring) conditions in this stream. In Rogativa, shifts in benthic invertebrate assemblages along increasing gradients of flow intermittence were found for three metrics (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera (EPT) and Odonata, Coleoptera and Heteroptera (OCH) abundances and aerial active dispersal. Furthermore, we demonstrated that combined gradients of dry period duration and distance to nearest perennial reach can generate complex, and different, responses of benthic invertebrate assemblages, depending on the flow intermittence metric. Our study advances the notion that special attention should be paid to the predictability, duration and spatial patterns of drying in intermittent streams in order to disentangle the effects of drying on benthic invertebrate assemblages, in particular in areas subject to high spatial heterogeneity and temporal variability in drying conditions.

Dry habitats sustain high CO2 emissions from temporary ponds across seasons.

Despite the increasing understanding of the magnitude and drivers of carbon gas emissions from inland waters, the relevance of water fluctuation and associated drying on their dynamics is rarely addressed. Here, we quantified CO2 and CH4 fluxes from a set of temporary ponds across seasons. The ponds were in all occasion net CO2 emitters irrespective of the presence or absence of water. While the CO2 fluxes were in the upper range of emissions for freshwater lentic systems, CH4 fluxes were mostly undetectable. Dry habitats substantially contributed to these emissions and were always a source of CO2, whereas inundated habitats acted either as a source or a sink of atmospheric CO2 along the year. Higher concentrations of coloured and humic organic matter in water and sediment were linked to higher CO2 emissions. Composition of the sediment microbial community was related both to dissolved organic matter concentration and composition, but we did not find a direct link with CO2 fluxes. The presence of methanogenic archaea in most ponds suggested the potential for episodic CH4 production and emission. Our results highlight the need for spatially and temporally inclusive approaches that consider the dry phases and habitats to characterize carbon cycling in temporary systems.

Drivers of nitrogen transfer in stream food webs across continents.

Studies of trophic-level material and energy transfers are central to ecology. The use of isotopic tracers has now made it possible to measure trophic transfer efficiencies of important nutrients and to better understand how these materials move through food webs. We analyzed data from thirteen 15 N-ammonium tracer addition experiments to quantify N transfer from basal resources to animals in headwater streams with varying physical, chemical, and biological features. N transfer efficiencies from primary uptake compartments (PUCs; heterotrophic microorganisms and primary producers) to primary consumers was lower (mean 11.5%, range <1% to 43%) than N transfer efficiencies from primary consumers to predators (mean 80%, range 5% to >100%). Total N transferred (as a rate) was greater in streams with open compared to closed canopies and overall N transfer efficiency generally followed a similar pattern, although was not statistically significant. We used principal component analysis to condense a suite of site characteristics into two environmental components. Total N uptake rates among trophic levels were best predicted by the component that was correlated with latitude, DIN:SRP, GPP:ER, and percent canopy cover. N transfer efficiency did not respond consistently to environmental variables. Our results suggest that canopy cover influences N movement through stream food webs because light availability and primary production facilitate N transfer to higher trophic levels.

River ecosystem processes: A synthesis of approaches, criteria of use and sensitivity to environmental stressors.

River ecosystems are subject to multiple stressors that affect their structure and functioning. Ecosystem structure refers to characteristics such as channel form, water quality or the composition of biological communities, whereas ecosystem functioning refers to processes such as metabolism, organic matter decomposition or secondary production. Structure and functioning respond in contrasting and complementary ways to environmental stressors. Moreover, assessing the response of ecosystem functioning to stressors is critical to understand the effects on the ecosystem services that produce direct benefits to humans. Yet, there is more information on structural than on functional parameters, and despite the many approaches available to measure river ecosystem processes, structural approaches are more widely used, especially in management. One reason for this discrepancy is the lack of synthetic studies analyzing river ecosystem functioning in a way that is useful for both scientists and managers. Here, we present a synthesis of key river ecosystem processes, which provides a description of the main characteristics of each process, including criteria guiding their measurement as well as their respective sensitivity to stressors. We also discuss the current limitations, potential improvements and future steps that the use of functional measures in rivers needs to face.

Stream drying drives microbial ammonia oxidation and first-flush nitrate export.

Stream microbial communities and associated processes are influenced by environmental fluctuations that may ultimately dictate nutrient export. Discharge fluctuations caused by intermittent stream flow are increasing worldwide in response to global change. We examined the impact of flow cessation and drying on in-stream nitrogen cycling. We determined archaeal (AOA) and bacterial ammonia oxidizer (AOB) abundance and ammonia oxidation activity in surface and deep sediments from different sites along the Fuirosos stream (Spain) subjected to contrasting hydrological conditions (i.e., running water, isolated pools, and dry streambeds). AOA were more abundant than AOB, with no major changes across hydrological conditions or sediment layers. However, ammonia oxidation activity and sediment nitrate content increased with the degree of stream drying, especially in surface sediments. Upscaling of our results shows that ammonia oxidation in dry streambeds can contribute considerably (~50%) to the high nitrate export typically observed in intermittent streams during first-flush events following flow reconnection. Our study illustrates how the dry channels of intermittent streams can be potential hotspots of ammonia oxidation. Consequently, shifts in the duration, spatial extent and severity of intermittent flow can play a decisive role in shaping nitrogen cycling and export along fluvial networks in response to global change.

Regulation causes nitrogen cycling discontinuities in Mediterranean rivers.

River regulation has fundamentally altered large sections of the world's river networks. The effects of dams on the structural properties of downstream reaches are well documented, but less is known about their effect on river ecosystem processes. We investigated the effect of dams on river nutrient cycling by comparing net uptake of total dissolved nitrogen (TDN), phosphorus (TDP) and organic carbon (DOC) in river reaches located upstream and downstream from three reservoir systems in the Ebro River basin (NE Iberian Peninsula). Increased hydromorphological stability, organic matter standing stocks and ecosystem metabolism below dams enhanced the whole-reach net uptake of TDN, but not that of TDP or DOC. Upstream from dams, river reaches tended to be at biogeochemical equilibrium (uptake≈release) for all nutrients, whereas river reaches below dams acted as net sinks of TDN. Overall, our results suggest that flow regulation by dams may cause relevant N cycling discontinuities in rivers. Higher net N uptake capacity below dams could lead to reduced N export to downstream ecosystems. Incorporating these discontinuities could significantly improve predictive models of N cycling and transport in complex river networks.

Occurrence and persistence of antibiotic resistance genes in river biofilms after wastewater inputs in small rivers.

The extensive use of antibiotics in human and veterinary medicine and their subsequent release into the environment may have direct consequences for autochthonous bacterial communities, especially in freshwater ecosystems. In small streams and rivers, local inputs of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) may become important sources of organic matter, nutrients and emerging pollutants, such as antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). In this study, we evaluated the effect of WWTP effluents as a source of ARGs in river biofilms. The prevalence of genes conferring resistance to main antibiotic families, such as beta-lactams (blaCTX-M), fluoroquinolones (qnrS), sulfonamides (sul I), and macrolides (ermB), was determined using quantitative PCR (qPCR) in biofilm samples collected upstream and downstream WWTPs discharge points in four low-order streams. Our results showed that the WWTP effluents strongly modified the hydrology, physico-chemistry and biological characteristics of the receiving streams and favoured the persistence and spread of antibiotic resistance in microbial benthic communities. It was also shown that the magnitude of effects depended on the relative contribution of each WWTP to the receiving system. Specifically, low concentrations of ARGs were detected at sites located upstream of the WWTPs, while a significant increase of their concentrations was observed in biofilms collected downstream of the WWTP discharge points (particularly ermB and sul I genes). These findings suggest that WWTP discharges may favour the increase and spread of antibiotic resistance among streambed biofilms. The present study also showed that the presence of ARGs in biofilms was noticeable far downstream of the WWTP discharge (up to 1 km). It is therefore reasonable to assume that biofilms may represent an ideal setting for the acquisition and spread of antibiotic resistance determinants and thus be considered suitable biological indicators of anthropogenic pollution by active pharmaceutical compounds.