Determination of ATP and its metabolites in dietary energy supplements by capillary electrophoresis

Abstract This study aimed to develop a simple and fast capillary electrophoresis (CE) method for the simultaneous determination of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and its metabolites in dietary energy supplements. Reverse polarity separation mode for faster separation of the three strong negatively charged analytes and capillaries with a 25 µm inner diameter was employed. At -433 V/cm field strength at background electrolyte (BGE) consist with 0.1 M tris-HCl, 0.5 mM tetradecyltrimethylammonium chloride (TTAC) as positively charged surfactant and 0.3 mg/mL hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) to reduce the electroosmotic flow (EOF), a complete separation of the three species were achieved in less than 15 minutes. The data acquisition was conducted at a wavelength of 254 nm. Three different commercialised dietary energy supplements were analysed.

High glucose inhibits osteogenic differentiation and proliferation of MC3T3­E1 cells by regulating P2X7.

Diabetes mellitus adversely affects human bones and increases the risk of developing osteoporosis. In the present study, treatment with 30 mmol/l glucose was used to establish a high glucose (HG) cell model in vitro. Plasmids were used to overexpress the P2X purinoceptor 7 (P2X7) gene. Brilliant blue G and (4­benzoyl­benzoyl)­ATP were used as a P2X7 antagonist and agonist, respectively. Proliferation of osteogenic MC3T3­E1 cells and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity were determined using MTT and colorimetric assays, respectively. Alizarin Red S was used to assess calcification of MC3T3­E1 cells. Western blotting and reverse transcription­quantitative PCR were performed to determine protein and mRNA expression levels. The results demonstrated that HG inhibited MC3T3­E1 cell proliferation and P2X7 expression, reduced calcification, and downregulated the expression levels of ALP and osteocalcin (Ocn) in MC3T3­E1 cells. Overexpression of P2X7 in HG conditions increased calcification and proliferation, and upregulated the levels of ALP and Ocn in MC3T3­E1 cells. Inhibition of P2X7 downregulated the expressions of ALP and Ocn in MC3T3­E1 cells under HG conditions. Therefore, the present results indicated that HG caused damage to osteogenic MC3T3­E1 cells. Thus, P2X7 may be a regulatory factor that may be used to counteract the effects of HG on osteogenesis.

Co-Stimulation of Purinergic P2X4 and Prostanoid EP3 Receptors Triggers Synergistic Degranulation in Murine Mast Cells.

Mast cells (MCs) recognize antigens (Ag) via IgE-bound high affinity IgE receptors (FcεRI) and trigger type I allergic reactions. FcεRI-mediated MC activation is regulated by various G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) agonists. We recently reported that ionotropic P2X4 receptor (P2X4R) stimulation enhanced FcεRI-mediated degranulation. Since MCs are involved in Ag-independent hypersensitivity, we investigated whether co-stimulation with ATP and GPCR agonists in the absence of Ag affects MC degranulation. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) induced synergistic degranulation when bone marrow-derived MCs (BMMCs) were co-stimulated with ATP, while pharmacological analyses revealed that the effects of PGE2 and ATP were mediated by EP3 and P2X4R, respectively. Consistently, this response was absent in BMMCs prepared from P2X4R-deficient mice. The effects of ATP and PGE2 were reduced by PI3 kinase inhibitors but were insensitive to tyrosine kinase inhibitors which suppressed the enhanced degranulation induced by Ag and ATP. MC-dependent PGE2-triggered vascular hyperpermeability was abrogated in a P2X4R-deficient mouse ear edema model. Collectively, our results suggest that P2X4R signaling enhances EP3R-mediated MC activation via a different mechanism to that involved in enhancing Ag-induced responses. Moreover, the cooperative effects of the common inflammatory mediators ATP and PGE2 on MCs may be involved in Ag-independent hypersensitivity in vivo.

Celiac disease-associated Neisseria flavescens decreases mitochondrial respiration in CaCo-2 epithelial cells: Impact of Lactobacillus paracasei CBA L74 on bacterial-induced cellular imbalance.

We previously identified a Neisseria flavescens strain in the duodenum of celiac disease (CD) patients that induced immune inflammation in ex vivo duodenal mucosal explants and in CaCo-2 cells. We also found that vesicular trafficking was delayed after the CD-immunogenic P31-43 gliadin peptide-entered CaCo-2 cells and that Lactobacillus paracasei CBA L74 (L. paracasei-CBA) supernatant reduced peptide entry. In this study, we evaluated if metabolism and trafficking was altered in CD-N. flavescens-infected CaCo-2 cells and if any alteration could be mitigated by pretreating cells with L. paracasei-CBA supernatant, despite the presence of P31-43. We measured CaCo-2 bioenergetics by an extracellular flux analyser, N. flavescens and P31-43 intracellular trafficking by immunofluorescence, cellular stress by TBARS assay, and ATP by bioluminescence. We found that CD-N. flavescens colocalised more than control N. flavescens with early endocytic vesicles and more escaped autophagy thereby surviving longer in infected cells. P31-43 increased colocalisation of N. flavescens with early vesicles. Mitochondrial respiration was lower (P < .05) in CD-N. flavescens-infected cells versus not-treated CaCo-2 cells, whereas pretreatment with L. paracasei-CBA reduced CD-N. flavescens viability and improved cell bioenergetics and trafficking. In conclusion, CD-N. flavescens induces metabolic imbalance in CaCo-2 cells, and the L. paracasei-CBA probiotic could be used to correct CD-associated dysbiosis.

Taurine prevents mitochondrial membrane permeabilization and swelling upon interaction with manganese: Implication in the treatment of cirrhosis-associated central nervous system complications.

Brain tissue manganese (Mn) accumulation is a cirrhosis-associated complication. Cellular mitochondria are among the potential targets for Mn-induced cytotoxicity. Taurine is one of the most abundant amino acids with high concentrations in human brain tissue. Several pharmacological properties including regulation of mitochondrial function are attributed to taurine. The current investigation was designed to evaluate the effect of taurine on Mn-induced mitochondrial impairment in isolated mice brain mitochondria. The brain mitochondria were exposed to increasing concentrations of Mn (0.1-10 mM). Taurine (0.1, 1, and 10 mM) was added as the protective agent. The severe collapse of mitochondrial membrane potential, decreased mitochondrial dehydrogenases activity, mitochondrial swelling, and depleted mitochondrial adenosine triphosphate (ATP) were evident in Mn-exposed mitochondria. It was found that taurine administration preserved mitochondrial ATP, prevented mitochondrial depolarization and swelling, and increased mitochondrial dehydrogenases activity. These data suggest mitochondrial protection as an underlying mechanism for the protective effects of taurine against Mn toxicity.

Leucine supplementation attenuates macrophage foam-cell formation: Studies in humans, mice, and cultured macrophages.

Whereas atherogenicity of dietary lipids has been largely studied, relatively little is known about the possible contribution of dietary amino acids to macrophage foam-cell formation, a hallmark of early atherogenesis. Recently, we showed that leucine has antiatherogenic properties in the macrophage model system. In this study, an in-depth investigation of the role of leucine in macrophage lipid metabolism was conducted by supplementing humans, mice, or cultured macrophages with leucine. Macrophage incubation with serum obtained from healthy adults supplemented with leucine (5 g/d, 3 weeks) significantly decreased cellular cholesterol mass by inhibiting the rate of cholesterol biosynthesis and increasing cholesterol efflux from macrophages. Similarly, leucine supplementation to C57BL/6 mice (8 weeks) resulted in decreased cholesterol content in their harvested peritoneal macrophages (MPM) in relation with reduced cholesterol biosynthesis rate. Studies in J774A.1 murine macrophages revealed that leucine dose-dependently decreased cellular cholesterol and triglyceride mass. Macrophages treated with leucine (0.2 mM) showed attenuated uptake of very low-density lipoproteins and triglyceride biosynthesis rate, with a concurrent down-regulation of diacylglycerol acyltransferase-1, a key enzyme catalyzing triglyceride biosynthesis in macrophages. Similar effects were observed when macrophages were treated with α-ketoisocaproate, a key leucine metabolite. Finally, both in vivo and in vitro leucine supplementation significantly improved macrophage mitochondrial respiration and ATP production. The above studies, conducted in human, mice, and cultured macrophages, highlight a protective role for leucine attenuating macrophage foam-cell formation by mechanisms related to the metabolism of cholesterol, triglycerides, and energy production. © 2018 BioFactors, 44(3):245-262, 2018.

Evaluation of mitochondrial bioenergetics, dynamics, endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria crosstalk, and reactive oxygen species in fibroblasts from patients with complex I deficiency.

Mitochondrial complex I (CI) deficiency is the most frequent cause of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) disorders in humans. In order to benchmark the effects of CI deficiency on mitochondrial bioenergetics and dynamics, respiratory chain (RC) and endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-mitochondria communication, and superoxide production, fibroblasts from patients with mutations in the ND6, NDUFV1 or ACAD9 genes were analyzed. Fatty acid metabolism, basal and maximal respiration, mitochondrial membrane potential, and ATP levels were decreased. Changes in proteins involved in mitochondrial dynamics were detected in various combinations in each cell line, while variable changes in RC components were observed. ACAD9 deficient cells exhibited an increase in RC complex subunits and DDIT3, an ER stress marker. The level of proteins involved in ER-mitochondria communication was decreased in ND6 and ACAD9 deficient cells. |ΔΨ| and cell viability were further decreased in all cell lines. These findings suggest that disruption of mitochondrial bioenergetics and dynamics, ER-mitochondria crosstalk, and increased superoxide contribute to the pathophysiology in patients with ACAD9 deficiency. Furthermore, treatment of ACAD9 deficient cells with JP4-039, a novel mitochondria-targeted reactive oxygen species, electron and radical scavenger, decreased superoxide level and increased basal and maximal respiratory rate, identifying a potential therapeutic intervention opportunity in CI deficiency.

Influence of Tween-80 on the production and structure of water-insoluble curdlan from Agrobacterium sp.

In order to explore the mechanism by which Tween-80 enhances the production of curdlan produced by Agrobacterium sp., the effects of Tween-80 on the production and structure of curdlan and Agrobacterium sp. were evaluated. Maximum curdlan production (51.94g/L) was achieved when 16g/L Tween-80 was added at the beginning of the cell growth stage. The addition of Tween-80 at higher concentration inhibited cell growth. However, the addition of 16g/L Tween-80 enhanced the production of curdlan with a looser ultrastructure, significantly weakened the envelopment of curdlan on Agrobacterium sp., altered the fine structure of cell membrane, and increased the cell membrane permeability. Moreover, the efficiency of oxygen and mass transport, respiration intensity, UTP regeneration, ATP regeneration, activity of curdlan synthetase, capacity of stress response and energy supply of Agrobacterium sp. were all greatly improved by the addition of Tween-80. These findings demonstrate the mechanisms by which Tween-80 enhances curdlan production and provide a cheap and feasible approach to weaken the envelopment of water-insoluble polysaccharides on bacteria.

Mitochondrial dysfunction in the APP/PSEN1 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease and a novel protective role for ascorbate.

Mitochondrial dysfunction is elevated in very early stages of Alzheimer's disease and exacerbates oxidative stress, which contributes to disease pathology. Mitochondria were isolated from 4-month-old wild-type mice, transgenic mice carrying the APPSWE and PSEN1dE9 mutations, mice with decreased brain and mitochondrial ascorbate (vitamin C) via heterozygous knockout of the sodium dependent vitamin C transporter (SVCT2+/-) and transgenic APP/PSEN1 mice with heterozygous SVCT2 expression. Mitochondrial isolates from SVCT2+/- mice were observed to consume less oxygen using high-resolution respirometry, and also exhibited decreased mitochondrial membrane potential compared to wild type isolates. Conversely, isolates from young (4 months) APP/PSEN1 mice consumed more oxygen, and exhibited an increase in mitochondrial membrane potential, but had a significantly lower ATP/ADP ratio compared to wild type isolates. Greater levels of reactive oxygen species were also produced in mitochondria isolated from both APP/PSEN1 and SVCT2+/- mice compared to wild type isolates. Acute administration of ascorbate to mitochondria isolated from wild-type mice increased oxygen consumption compared with untreated mitochondria suggesting ascorbate may support energy production. This study suggests that both presence of amyloid and ascorbate deficiency can contribute to mitochondrial dysfunction, even at an early, prodromal stage of Alzheimer's disease, although occurring via different pathways. Ascorbate may, therefore, provide a useful preventative strategy against neurodegenerative disease, particularly in populations most at risk for Alzheimer's disease in which stores are often depleted through mitochondrial dysfunction and elevated oxidative stress.

Lycopene Prevents Mitochondrial Dysfunction during d-Galactosamine/Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Fulminant Hepatic Failure in Albino Rats.

Functional perturbation of mitochondria is associated with fulminant hepatic failure (FHF). d-Galactosamine/lipopolysaccharide (d-GalN/LPS)-induced FHF is a renowned model to evaluate the efficacy of hepatoprotective agents. Lycopene is an antioxidant and phytonutrient from the carotenoid family. The health benefits of lycopene are prominent against cancer and cardiovascular, lung, liver, and skin problems. Recent studies have demonstrated the hepatoprotective, antidyslipidemic, and antioxidant roles of lycopene. The current study was designed to appraise the ability of lycopene to prevent mitochondrial dysfunction during the d-GalN/LPS-induced FHF. The administration of d-GalN/LPS (300 mg and 30 µg/kg body weight, respectively) to the experimental rats induced several disturbances in mitochondrial function. The lipid peroxide and hydrogen peroxide levels were increased (p < 0.05). The activities of mitochondrial antioxidants, tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, and electron transport chain enzymes and the cellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) content were decreased (p < 0.05). Lycopene (10 mg/kg body weight for 6 days) pretreatment attenuated lipid peroxidation and prohibited the excessive synthesis of hydrogen peroxide. The d-GalN/LPS-induced impairment in ATP production and increased enzyme activities were effectively prevented by the lycopene administration. The lycopene-mediated mitochondrial protection was mainly ascribed to the strong antioxidant potential of this phytonutrient. Molecular modeling results obtained show evidence that lycopene inhibits several lipoxygenases and provides rationale for the observed prevention of lipid peroxidation in the mitochondrial membrane. The carotenoid lycopene combatted oxidative stress, scavenged free radicals, prevented ROS generation, and inhibited the toxic effects of d-GalN/LPS during FHF.

Ginsenoside Rb1 protects against ischemia/reperfusion-induced myocardial injury via energy metabolism regulation mediated by RhoA signaling pathway.

Cardiac ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) injury remains a challenge for clinicians. Ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1) has been reported to have the ability to attenuate I/R injury, but its effect on energy metabolism during cardiac I/R and the underlying mechanism remain unknown. In this study, we detected the effect of Rb1 on rat myocardial blood flow, myocardial infarct size, cardiac function, velocity of venule red blood cell, myocardial structure and apoptosis, energy metabolism and change in RhoA signaling pathway during cardiac I/R injury. In addition, the binding affinity of RhoA to Rb1 was detected using surface plasmon resonance (SPR). Results showed that Rb1 treatment at 5 mg/kg/h protected all the cardiac injuries induced by I/R, including damaged myocardial structure, decrease in myocardial blood flow, impaired heart function and microcirculation, cardiomyocyte apoptosis, myocardial infarction and release of myocardial cTnI. Rb1 also inhibited the activation of RhoA signaling pathway and restored the production of ATP during cardiac I/R. Moreover, SPR assay showed that Rb1 was able to bind to RhoA in a dose-dependent manner. These results indicate that Rb1 may prevent I/R-induced cardiac injury by regulation of RhoA signaling pathway, and may serve as a potential regime to improve percutaneous coronary intervention outcome.

Improving Mitochondrial Function Protects Bumblebees from Neonicotinoid Pesticides.

Global pollination is threatened by declining insect pollinator populations that may be linked to neonicotinoid pesticide use. Neonicotinoids over stimulate neurons and depolarize their mitochondria, producing immobility and death. However, mitochondrial function can be improved by near infrared light absorbed by cytochrome c oxidase in mitochondrial respiration. In flies, daily exposure to 670nm light throughout life increases average lifespan and aged mobility, and reduces systemic inflammation. Here we treat bumble bees with Imidacloprid a common neonicotinoid. This undermined ATP and rapidly induced immobility and reduced visual function and survival. Bees exposed to insecticide and daily to 670nm light showed corrected ATP levels and significantly improved mobility allowing them to feed. Physiological recordings from eyes revealed that light exposure corrected deficits induced by the pesticide. Overall, death rates in bees exposed to insecticide but also given 670nm light were indistinguishable from controls. When Imidacloprid and light exposure were withdrawn, survival was maintained. Bees and insects generally cannot see deep red light so it does not disturb their behaviour. Hence, we show that deep red light exposure that improves mitochondrial function, reverses the sensory and motor deficits induced by Imidacloprid. These results may have important implications as light delivery is economic and can be placed in hives/colonies.

Mechanistic insights from resolving ligand-dependent kinetics of conformational changes at ATP-gated P2X1R ion channels.

Structural studies of P2X receptors show a novel U shaped ATP orientation following binding. We used voltage clamp fluorometry (VCF) and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to investigate agonist action. For VCF the P2X1 receptor (P2X1R) K190C mutant (adjacent to the agonist binding pocket) was labelled with the fluorophore MTS-TAMRA and changes in fluorescence on agonist treatment provided a real time measure of conformational changes. Studies with heteromeric channels incorporating a key lysine mutation (K68A) in the ATP binding site demonstrate that normally three molecules of ATP activate the receptor. The time-course of VCF responses to ATP, 2'-deoxy ATP, 3'-deoxy ATP, Ap5A and αßmeATP were agonist dependent. Comparing the properties of the deoxy forms of ATP demonstrated the importance of the 2' hydroxyl group on the ribose ring in determining agonist efficacy consistent with MD simulations showing that it forms a hydrogen bond with the γ-phosphate oxygen stabilizing the U-shaped conformation. Comparison of the recovery of fluorescence on agonist washout, with channel activation to a second agonist application for the partial agonists Ap5A and αßmeATP, showed a complex relationship between conformational change and desensitization. These results highlight that different agonists induce distinct conformational changes, kinetics and recovery from desensitization at P2X1Rs.

Inhibition of HIF-prolyl-4-hydroxylases prevents mitochondrial impairment and cell death in a model of neuronal oxytosis.

Mitochondrial impairment induced by oxidative stress is a main characteristic of intrinsic cell death pathways in neurons underlying the pathology of neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, protection of mitochondrial integrity and function is emerging as a promising strategy to prevent neuronal damage. Here, we show that pharmacological inhibition of hypoxia-inducible factor prolyl-4-hydroxylases (HIF-PHDs) by adaptaquin inhibits lipid peroxidation and fully maintains mitochondrial function as indicated by restored mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP production, reduced formation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) and preserved mitochondrial respiration, thereby protecting neuronal HT-22 cells in a model of glutamate-induced oxytosis. Selective reduction of PHD1 protein using CRISPR/Cas9 technology also reduced both lipid peroxidation and mitochondrial impairment, and attenuated glutamate toxicity in the HT-22 cells. Regulation of activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) expression levels and related target genes may mediate these beneficial effects. Overall, these results expose HIF-PHDs as promising targets to protect mitochondria and, thereby, neurons from oxidative cell death.

Coenzyme Q biosynthesis in health and disease.

Coenzyme Q (CoQ, or ubiquinone) is a remarkable lipid that plays an essential role in mitochondria as an electron shuttle between complexes I and II of the respiratory chain, and complex III. It is also a cofactor of other dehydrogenases, a modulator of the permeability transition pore and an essential antioxidant. CoQ is synthesized in mitochondria by a set of at least 12 proteins that form a multiprotein complex. The exact composition of this complex is still unclear. Most of the genes involved in CoQ biosynthesis (COQ genes) have been studied in yeast and have mammalian orthologues. Some of them encode enzymes involved in the modification of the quinone ring of CoQ, but for others the precise function is unknown. Two genes appear to have a regulatory role: COQ8 (and its human counterparts ADCK3 and ADCK4) encodes a putative kinase, while PTC7 encodes a phosphatase required for the activation of Coq7. Mutations in human COQ genes cause primary CoQ(10) deficiency, a clinically heterogeneous mitochondrial disorder with onset from birth to the seventh decade, and with clinical manifestation ranging from fatal multisystem disorders, to isolated encephalopathy or nephropathy. The pathogenesis of CoQ(10) deficiency involves deficient ATP production and excessive ROS formation, but possibly other aspects of CoQ(10) function are implicated. CoQ(10) deficiency is unique among mitochondrial disorders since an effective treatment is available. Many patients respond to oral CoQ(10) supplementation. Nevertheless, treatment is still problematic because of the low bioavailability of the compound, and novel pharmacological approaches are currently being investigated. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'EBEC 2016: 19th European Bioenergetics Conference, Riva del Garda, Italy, July 2-6, 2016', edited by Prof. Paolo Bernardi.

Malonate induces the assembly of cytoplasmic stress granules.

Malonate, a classic inhibitor of respiratory electron transport chain, induces mitochondrial stress. Stress granules (SGs) are a kind of dynamic foci structure during stress. The study on the connection of mitochondrial stress and SG assembly is still limited. Here, we demonstrated that malonate treatment leads to SG formation and translation inhibition, apart from mitochondrial stress, including enhanced ROS formation, reduced mitochondrial Δψm and ATP level. The phosphorylation levels of eIF2α and 4EBP1 protein were affected upon mitochondrial dysfunction. However, knockdown of 4EBP1 affected SG formation, rather than eIF2α. In addition, an increase of ATP level under mitochondrial stress enhanced malonate-induced SG aggregation. Overall, malonate stimulation triggers mitochondrial stress and induces the assembly of non-canonical cellular SGs via 4EBP1 pathway.

Human Adenine Nucleotide Translocase (ANT) Modulators Identified by High-Throughput Screening of Transgenic Yeast.

Transport of ADP and ATP across mitochondria is one of the primary points of regulation to maintain cellular energy homeostasis. This process is mainly mediated by adenine nucleotide translocase (ANT) located on the mitochondrial inner membrane. There are four human ANT isoforms, each having a unique tissue-specific expression pattern and biological function, highlighting their potential as drug targets for diverse clinical indications, including male contraception and cancer. In this study, we present a novel yeast-based high-throughput screening (HTS) strategy to identify compounds inhibiting the function of ANT. Yeast strains generated by deletion of endogenous proteins with ANT activity followed by insertion of individual human ANT isoforms are sensitive to cell-permeable ANT inhibitors, which reduce proliferation. Screening hits identified in the yeast proliferation assay were characterized in ADP/ATP exchange assays employing recombinant ANT isoforms expressed in isolated yeast mitochondria and Lactococcus lactis as well as by oxygen consumption rate in mammalian cells. Using this approach, closantel and CD437 were identified as broad-spectrum ANT inhibitors, whereas leelamine was found to be a modulator of ANT function. This yeast "knock-out/knock-in" screening strategy is applicable to a broad range of essential molecular targets that are required for yeast survival.

Emerging Strategies to Enhance Homing and Engraftment of Hematopoietic Stem Cells.

Successful clinical outcomes from transplantation of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) depend upon efficient HSC homing to bone marrow (BM), subsequent engraftment, and, finally, BM repopulation. Homing of intravenously administered HSCs from peripheral blood (PB) through the circulation to the BM stem cell niches, which is the first critical step that precedes their engraftment, is enforced by chemotactic factors released in the BM microenvironment that chemoattract HSCs. These chemotactic factors include α-chemokine stromal-derived factor 1 (SDF-1), the bioactive phosphosphingolipids sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) and ceramid-1-phosphate (C1P), and the extracellular nucleotides ATP and UTP. Stem cells may also respond to a Ca(2+) or H(+) gradient by employing calcium- or proton-sensing receptors, respectively. In this review, we will present emerging strategies based on ex vivo manipulation of graft HSCs that are aimed at enhancing the responsiveness of HSCs to BM-secreted chemoattractants and/or promoting HSC adhesion and seeding efficiency in the BM microenvironment.

Low-level laser (light) therapy increases mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP synthesis in C2C12 myotubes with a peak response at 3-6 h.

Low-level laser (light) therapy has been used before exercise to increase muscle performance in both experimental animals and in humans. However, uncertainty exists concerning the optimum time to apply the light before exercise. The mechanism of action is thought to be stimulation of mitochondrial respiration in muscles, and to increase adenosine triphosphate (ATP) needed to perform exercise. The goal of this study was to investigate the time course of the increases in mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and ATP in myotubes formed from C2C12 mouse muscle cells and exposed to light-emitting diode therapy (LEDT). LEDT employed a cluster of LEDs with 20 red (630 ± 10 nm, 25 mW) and 20 near-infrared (850 ± 10 nm, 50 mW) delivering 28 mW cm(2) for 90 s (2.5 J cm(2)) with analysis at 5 min, 3 h, 6 h and 24 h post-LEDT. LEDT-6 h had the highest MMP, followed by LEDT-3 h, LEDT-24 h, LEDT-5 min and Control with significant differences. The same order (6 h > 3 h > 24 h > 5 min > Control) was found for ATP with significant differences. A good correlation was found (r = 0.89) between MMP and ATP. These data suggest an optimum time window of 3-6 h for LEDT stimulate muscle cells.

Novel VCP modulators mitigate major pathologies of rd10, a mouse model of retinitis pigmentosa.

Neuroprotection may prevent or forestall the progression of incurable eye diseases, such as retinitis pigmentosa, one of the major causes of adult blindness. Decreased cellular ATP levels may contribute to the pathology of this eye disease and other neurodegenerative diseases. Here we describe small compounds (Kyoto University Substances, KUSs) that were developed to inhibit the ATPase activity of VCP (valosin-containing protein), the most abundant soluble ATPase in the cell. Surprisingly, KUSs did not significantly impair reported cellular functions of VCP but nonetheless suppressed the VCP-dependent decrease of cellular ATP levels. Moreover, KUSs, as well as exogenous ATP or ATP-producing compounds, e.g. methylpyruvate, suppressed endoplasmic reticulum stress, and demonstrably protected various types of cultured cells from death, including several types of retinal neuronal cells. We then examined their in vivo efficacies in rd10, a mouse model of retinitis pigmentosa. KUSs prevented photoreceptor cell death and preserved visual function. These results reveal an unexpected, crucial role of ATP consumption by VCP in determining cell fate in this pathological context, and point to a promising new neuroprotective strategy for currently incurable retinitis pigmentosa.