Availability and affordability of cardiovascular disease medicines and their effect on use in high-income, middle-income, and low-income countries: an analysis of the PURE study data.

BACKGROUND: WHO has targeted that medicines to prevent recurrent cardiovascular disease be available in 80% of communities and used by 50% of eligible individuals by 2025. We have previously reported that use of these medicines is very low, but now aim to assess how such low use relates to their lack of availability or poor affordability. METHODS: We analysed information about availability and costs of cardiovascular disease medicines (aspirin, ß blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, and statins) in pharmacies gathered from 596 communities in 18 countries participating in the Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiology (PURE) study. Medicines were considered available if present at the pharmacy when surveyed, and affordable if their combined cost was less than 20% of household capacity-to-pay. We compared results from high-income, upper middle-income, lower middle-income, and low-income countries. Data from India were presented separately given its large, generic pharmaceutical industry. FINDINGS: Communities were recruited between Jan 1, 2003, and Dec 31, 2013. All four cardiovascular disease medicines were available in 61 (95%) of 64 urban and 27 (90%) of 30 rural communities in high-income countries, 53 (80%) of 66 urban and 43 (73%) of 59 rural communities in upper middle-income countries, 69 (62%) of 111 urban and 42 (37%) of 114 rural communities in lower middle-income countries, eight (25%) of 32 urban and one (3%) of 30 rural communities in low-income countries (excluding India), and 34 (89%) of 38 urban and 42 (81%) of 52 rural communities in India. The four cardiovascular disease medicines were potentially unaffordable for 0·14% of households in high-income countries (14 of 9934 households), 25% of upper middle-income countries (6299 of 24,776), 33% of lower middle-income countries (13,253 of 40,023), 60% of low-income countries (excluding India; 1976 of 3312), and 59% households in India (9939 of 16,874). In low-income and middle-income countries, patients with previous cardiovascular disease were less likely to use all four medicines if fewer than four were available (odds ratio [OR] 0·16, 95% CI 0·04-0·57). In communities in which all four medicines were available, patients were less likely to use medicines if the household potentially could not afford them (0·16, 0·04-0·55). INTERPRETATION: Secondary prevention medicines are unavailable and unaffordable for a large proportion of communities and households in upper middle-income, lower middle-income, and low-income countries, which have very low use of these medicines. Improvements to the availability and affordability of key medicines is likely to enhance their use and help towards achieving WHO's targets of 50% use of key medicines by 2025. FUNDING: Population Health Research Institute, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Heart and Stroke Foundation of Ontario, AstraZeneca (Canada), Sanofi-Aventis (France and Canada), Boehringer Ingelheim (Germany and Canada), Servier, GlaxoSmithKline, Novartis, King Pharma, and national or local organisations in participating countries.

Measuring medicine prices in Peru: validation of key aspects of WHO/HAI survey methodology.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the possibility of bias due to the limited target list and geographic sampling of the World Health Organization (WHO)/Health Action International (HAI) Medicine Prices and Availability survey used in more than 70 rapid sample surveys since 2001. METHODS: A survey was conducted in Peru in 2005 using an expanded sample of medicine outlets, including remote areas. Comprehensive data were gathered on medicines in three therapeutic classes to assess the adequacy of WHO/HAI's target medicines list and the focus on only two product versions. WHO/HAI median retail prices were compared with average wholesale prices from global pharmaceutical sales data supplier IMS Health. RESULTS: No significant differences were found in overall availability or prices of target list medicines by retail location. The comprehensive survey of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, anti-diabetic, and anti-ulcer products revealed that some treatments not on the target list were costlier for patients and more likely to be unavailable, particularly in remote areas. WHO/HAI retail prices and IMS wholesale prices were strongly correlated for higher priced products, and weakly correlated for lower priced products (which had higher estimated retailer markups). CONCLUSIONS: The WHO/HAI survey approach strikes an appropriate balance between modest research costs and optimal information for policy. Focusing on commonly used medicines yields sufficient and valid results. Surveyors elsewhere should consider the limits of the survey data as well as any local circumstances, such as scarcity, that may call for extra field efforts.

Measuring medicine prices in Peru: validation of key aspects of WHO/HAI survey methodology / Determinación de los precios de los medicamentos en Perú: validación de aspectos fundamentales del método de encuesta de la OMS/HAI

Objectives: To assess the possibility of bias due to the limited target list and geographic sampling of the World Health Organization (WHO)/Health Action International (HAI) Medicine Prices and Availability survey used in more than 70 rapid sample surveys since 2001. Methods: A survey was conducted in Peru in 2005 using an expanded sample of medicine outlets, including remote areas. Comprehensive data were gathered on medicines in three therapeutic classes to assess the adequacy of WHO/HAI's target medicines list and the focus on only two product versions. WHO/HAI median retail prices were compared with average wholesale prices from global pharmaceutical sales data supplier IMS Health. Results: No significant differences were found in overall availability or prices of target list medicines by retail location. The comprehensive survey of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, anti-diabetic, and anti-ulcer products revealed that some treatments not on the target list were costlier for patients and more likely to be unavailable, particularly in remote areas. WHO/HAI retail prices and IMS wholesale prices were strongly correlated for higher priced products, and weakly correlated for lower priced products (which had higher estimated retailer markups). Conclusions: The WHO/HAI survey approach strikes an appropriate balance between modest research costs and optimal information for policy. Focusing on commonly used medicines yields sufficient and valid results. Surveyors elsewhere should consider the limits of the survey data as well as any local circumstances, such as scarcity, that may call for extra field efforts.

Objetivos: Evaluar la posibilidad de sesgo debido a la limitación de la lista de referencia y del muestreo geográfico de la encuesta de precios y disponibilidad de medicamentos de la Organización Mundial de la Salud/Health Action International (OMS/HAI) usada en más de 70 muestras de encuestas rápidas desde el 2001. Métodos: En el año 2005, se realizó una encuesta en Perú, con una muestra ampliada de puntos de venta de medicamento, incluso en zonas remotas. Se recogieron datos integrales acerca de los medicamentos de tres clases terapéuticas, con el fin de evaluar la idoneidad de la lista de referencia de medicamentos de la OMS/HAI y el énfasis únicamente en dos versiones del producto. Las medianas de los precios al por menor de la OMS/HAI se compararon con el promedio de precios al por mayor del proveedor de datos mundiales de ventas farmacéuticas IMS Health. Resultados: No se observó ninguna diferencia significativa en la disponibilidad general ni en los precios de los medicamentos de la lista de referencia por localización de venta al por menor. La encuesta integral de los inhibidores de la enzima convertidora de la angiotensina, los antidiabéticos y los productos antiulcerosos reveló que algunos tratamientos que no están en la lista destinataria eran más caros para los pacientes y era más probable que no estuvieran a la venta, sobre todo en las regiones remotas. Los precios al por menor de la OMS/HAI y los precios al por mayor de IMS presentaron una correlación intensa en el caso de los productos de precio más alto, y la correlación fue débil en el caso de los productos de precio más bajo (que tuvieron márgenes de beneficio calculados más altos para el minorista). Conclusiones: El método de la encuesta de la OMS/HAI logra un equilibrio adecuado entre los costos de investigación moderados y la información óptima para la política. El énfasis en los medicamentos de uso frecuente produce unos resultados válidos y suficientes. Los encuestadores de otros...

Consumption and costs of antihypertensive drugs in Mexico: are diuretic agents a standing technological trajectory?

BACKGROUND: Little is known about hypertension medication consumption and costs in Mexico. Hypertension control is a pharmacological challenge and a public health issue. OBJECTIVE: (a) To compare drug sales, number of written prescriptions, and monthly treatment costs among 5 classes of antihypertensive drugs and (b) to analyze diuretic drug sales and prescriptions to determine whether these antihypertensive agents represent an established technological trajectory. METHODS: A retrospective time series data study from 1999 to 2003. Data sources used were International Marketing Services of Mexico drug sales and the Mexico Prescription Audit databases. The 5 different classes of antihypertensive drugs were accommodated into 4 main technological trajectories according to their main biological mechanisms of action. Each technological trajectory was assessed using consumption and prescription data. Daily defined dose was used to calculate drug treatment costs. RESULTS: The market for cardiovascular agents is one of the largest, and in 2003 accounted for a value market share of 59 billion US dollar and a unit share of 40.7 million. Among cardiovascular agents, antihypertensive drugs made up a large percentage of market shares. Calcium channel blockers and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors I had the biggest share value of the total cardiovascular market. Amlodipine had the highest share among calcium channel blockers, and enalapril and captopril had the largest share among angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors I. The top-selling diuretic drug was furosemide. The trend in number of prescriptions was parallel to that in sales. The diuretic spironolactone was the most expensive drug treatment (59 US dollar). Treatment with spironolactone might represent 47% of the income of a Mexican family if their household income was close to minimum wage (124 US dollar). CONCLUSIONS: The most effective and least expensive drugs-diuretics-had the smallest market share of all antihypertensive agents in Mexico. Nevertheless, diuretic agents are still in use and kept over time a steady market share both in value and in units.

Changes in the costs of antihypertensive medications in a developing country: a study in Mexico comparing 1990 and 1996.

In developing countries, the cost of antihypertensive medications is one of the principal limiting factors when trying to treat patients with high blood pressure. To determine the changes in cost (in US dollars) of these medications and in the percentage of the minimum wage needed to purchase them, two cost studies (1990 and 1996) done in Mexico were compared. The yearly cost of a treatment with hydrochlorothiazide was US $13.80 in 1990; in 1996 it was US $10.92. Both figures represent 1.1% of the minimum wage that was in effect at the time. Propranolol hydrochloride cost US $50.52 for a year's treatment in 1990, and US $66.12 for the same in 1996. These figures represented, respectively, 4.2% and 6.7% of the minimum wage of 1990 and 1996. The annual cost for nifedipine was US $176.76 in 1990 (14.7% of the minimum wage) and US $242.16 in 1996 (24.8% of the minimum wage). The yearly cost of enalapril was US $233.04 in 1990 and US $433.20 in 1996; these costs represented, respectively, 19.4% and 44.2% of the minimum wage. The comparison of these two cost studies (1990 and 1996) shows why Mexico's population is finding it more difficult to purchase antihypertensive medications. Higher costs and reduced purchasing power seem to be the two principal factors causing this. This is probably affecting the population's health, as it is more difficult to control high blood pressure without proper treatment.