Viejos biomarcadores, ¿nuevas utilidades en enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica y apnea obstructiva del sueño? / New uses for old biomarkers in chronic obstructive pulmonar disease and obstructive sleep apnea

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Apnea in the Otherwise Healthy, Term Newborn: National Prevalence and Utilization during the Birth Hospitalization.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the prevalence of apnea in otherwise healthy term newborns, identify attributable length of stay (LOS) and healthcare utilization (cost) of apnea, and measure hospital variation in attributable LOS and cost of apnea in this population. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a secondary analysis of a national administrative dataset, the 2012 Kids' Inpatient Database, which included 3.4 million newborn discharges in the US. The birth hospitalizations of approximately 2.6 million otherwise healthy, full-term newborns were included for analysis. Attributable LOS and cost of apnea were calculated using multivariate analyses. RESULTS: Apnea was diagnosed in 1 in 1000 healthy full-term newborns. Multivariate analyses showed that newborns with apnea had 0.6 days longer LOS (P < .001) and $483 greater costs (P < .001) compared with healthy term newborns, per birth hospitalization. Newborns diagnosed with apnea plus hypoxia and/or bradycardia had 1.4 days longer LOS (P < .001) and $653 greater costs (P < .001). The attributable LOS and cost attributable to apnea varied between individual hospitals and differed by hospital region. CONCLUSIONS: Apnea is associated with higher LOS and cost in the newborn hospitalization, with variation in hospital practice. This suggests the need for better comprehension of the underlying physiology and standardization of practice in its management in the term newborn.

Economics of Home Monitoring for Apnea in Late Preterm Infants.

BACKGROUND: Apnea of prematurity affects a small proportion but large absolute number of late preterm infants, with out-patient management variably utilized despite relative clinical equipoise and potential for improved cost-effectiveness. METHODS: Over a 5-y period, from 2009 to 2013, infants born at ≥34 weeks gestational age at a level IIIB academic center in Boston, Massachusetts, with discharge-delaying apnea, bradycardia, and desaturation (ABD) events were identified. In-patient costs for discharge-delaying ABD events were compared with hypothetical out-patient management. Out-patient costs took into account 4-10 d of in-patient observation for ABD events before caffeine initiation, 3-5 d of additional in-patient observation before discharge, daily caffeine until 43 weeks corrected gestational age, home pulse oximetry monitoring until 44 weeks corrected gestational age, and consideration of variable readmission rates ranging from 0 to 10%. RESULTS: A total of 425 late preterm and term infants were included in our analysis. Utilization of hypothetical out-patient management resulted in cost savings per eligible patient ranging from $2,422 to $62, dependent upon variable periods of in-patient observation. Sensitivity analysis demonstrated few instances of decreased relative cost-effectiveness. CONCLUSIONS: Out-patient management of discharge-delaying ABD events in a late preterm and term population was a cost-effective alternative to prolonged in-patient observation.

Standardizing documentation and the clinical approach to apnea of prematurity reduces length of stay, improves staff satisfaction, and decreases hospital cost.

BACKGROUND: Apnea of prematurity, a common disorder, can severely compromise an infant's condition unless correctly diagnosed and treated. Infants with a history of apnea of prematurity can be discharged home but then be rehospitalized for an apneic event, an apparent life-threatening event, or sudden infant death syndrome. The definition of a clinically significant cardiopulmonary event, such events' documentation, and the treatment approach were standardized, and discharge criteria were refined. METHODS: A prospective, single-center comparison was conducted between a group of premature infants before and after implementation of the standard approach. Data were collected prospectively from August 1, 2005, through July 21, 2006, for the prestandard-approach group and from August 1, 2006, through September 16, 2007, for the standard-approach group. RESULTS: Twenty-two (35%) of the 63 infants in the prestandard-approach group experienced discharge delays because of poor documentation, whereby the clinician could not determine the safety of discharge. This resulted in 59 additional hospital days (mean length-of-stay [LOS] increase, 5.7 days). The standard-approach group of 72 infants experienced no discharge delays and no additional hospital days, and LOS decreased (all p < .0001). Annual charges were reduced by more than $58,000 in avoiding unnecessary hospital days. Readmission to the hospital for apnea of prematurity occurred for 5 (7.9%) of the prestandard-approach group but none of the standard-approach group (p = .0203). Overall compliance with the standardization process has been maintained at > or = 96%. CONCLUSION: Implementation of a standard approach to the definition of apnea of prematurity and its treatment and documentation decreases LOS and reduces cost.

Caffeine for apnea of prematurity: a neonatal success story.

Caffeine, a methylxanthine and nonspecific inhibitor of adenosine receptors, is an example of a drug that has been in use for more than 40 years. It is one of the most commonly prescribed drugs in neonatal medicine. However, until 2006, it had only a few relatively small and short-term studies supporting its use. It is thanks to the efforts of Barbara Schmidt and the Caffeine for Apnea of Prematurity (CAP) Trial Group that we now have high-quality and reliable data not only on short-term but also long-term outcomes of caffeine use for apnea of prematurity. CAP was an international, multicenter, placebo-controlled randomized trial designed to determine whether survival without neurodevelopmental disability at a corrected age of 18 months is improved if apnea of prematurity is managed without methylxanthines in infants at a high risk of apneic attacks. CAP was kept simple and pragmatic in order to allow for maximum generalizability and applicability. Infants with birth weights of 500-1,250 g were enrolled during the first 10 days of life if their clinicians considered them to be candidates for methylxanthine therapy. The most frequent indication for therapy reported in CAP was treatment of documented apnea, followed by the facilitation of the removal of an endotracheal tube. Only about 20% of the neonatologists in the trial started caffeine for the prevention of apnea and the findings of CAP cannot automatically be extrapolated to an exclusive prophylactic indication. However, recent data suggest that the administration of prophylactic methylxanthine by neonatologists is now common practice.

Análisis de coste-eficacia de la graduación automática de la presión positiva continua de la vía aérea en el domicilio: ¿una o 2 noches? / Cost-effectiveness analysis of automatic titration of continuous positive airway pressure at home in 1 night versus 2 nights

OBJETIVO: Evaluar el coste-eficacia de la graduaciónautomática de la presión positiva continua de la vía aérea(CPAP) en el domicilio, en una y 2 noches consecutivas, enpacientes con síndrome de apneas-hiponeas durante el sueño.PACIENTES Y MÉTODOS: Se practicó un estudio degraduación domiciliaria con un equipo de CPAP automática(APAP) durante 2 noches consecutivas a 100 pacientes consíndrome de apneas-hipopneas durante el sueño e indicaciónde tratamiento con CPAP. Se evaluaron el número deestudios satisfactorios y el coste resultante de la primeranoche y de las 2 noches. Se compararon las necesidades depresión durante cada noche y la concordancia entre lapresión seleccionada visualmente por 2 observadores.RESULTADOS: La graduación de CPAP fue satisfactoria enel 85 y el 80% de los pacientes en la primera y la segundanoches, respectivamente, y en el 88% después de las 2noches. No hubo diferencias significativas entre las 2 nochesen la presión percentil 95% (media ± desviación estándar:10,2 ± 1,8 y 10,2 ± 1,6 cmH2O), la presión media (7,8 ± 1,7 y7,7 ± 1,7 cmH2O) y la presión visual (9,4 ± 1,5 y 9,4 ± 1,4cmH2O). Se obtuvo un buen grado de concordancia entre 2observadores en la selección de presión (kappa = 0,956 parala noche 1; kappa = 0,91 para la noche 2). El coste de losestudios fue 232,63 € para la primera noche y 227,93 € paralas 2 noches consecutivas.CONCLUSIONES: Con un coste similar, la adopción de unprotocolo de graduación automática de la CPAP una noche enel domicilio permite incrementar sustancialmente el númerode pacientes estudiados, respecto a 2 noches consecutivas

OBJECTIVE: To assess the cost-effectiveness of automaticcontinuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) titration athome on 1 night or 2 consecutive nights in patients with thesleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome (SAHS).PATIENTS AND METHODS: A home titration study wasperformed using automatic CPAP for 2 consecutive nightson 100 patients with SAHS and an indication for CPAP. Thenumber of successful studies and the costs of the first nightand both nights were analyzed. The pressure requirementson each night and the agreement between the pressuresselected visually by 2 different observers were compared.RESULTS: CPAP titration was successful in 85% and 80%of patients on the first night and second night, respectively,and in 88% of patients after both nights. No significantdifferences between the 2 nights were found for the followingparameters: 95th percentile pressure (mean [SD], 10.2 [1.8]cm H2O and 10.2 [1.6] cm H2O on the first and secondnights, respectively), mean pressure (7.8 [1.7] cm H2O and7.7 [1.7] cm H2O), or the pressure selected visually (9.4 [1.5]cm H2O and 9.4 [1.4] cm H2O). Interobserver agreement onthe pressure selected was good: the k statistics were 0.956 forthe first night and 0.91 for the second night. The 1-nightstudy cost €232.63 and the 2-night study cost €227.93.CONCLUSIONS: Automatic CPAP titration at home for1 night enables a substantially greater number of patients tobe studied at a similar cost than is possible when titration isaccomplished in 2 consecutive nights

Cost-effectiveness analysis of predischarge monitoring for apnea of prematurity.

OBJECTIVE: It is standard practice to defer discharge of premature infants until they have achieved a set number of days without experiencing apnea. The duration of this period, however, is highly variable across institutions, and there is scant literature on its effectiveness or value-for-money. Our objective was to establish the economic impact of varying durations of predischarge observation for apnea of prematurity. METHODS: Using computer simulation, we compared the alternatives of hospital monitoring for 1 to 10 days, after apparent cessation of apnea, with no monitoring and with the next longest period of monitoring. The daily probability of apnea requiring stimulation after a given number of apnea-free days was obtained from chart review of 216 infants, beginning on the day they attained both full feeds and temperature stability in an open crib. Baseline rates of survival or impairment, utilities for calculation of quality-adjusted life years (QALYs), outcomes for respiratory arrest at home, and long-run costs for neurodevelopmental impairment were derived from the literature. Hospital expenditures were obtained from itemized billing records for infants on each of the final 10 days of hospitalization and converted to costs using Medicare cost-to-charge ratios. Costs are reported in 2000 US dollars. RESULTS: For infants born at 24 to 26 weeks' gestation, each additional day of monitoring cost from $41000 per QALY saved for the first day to >$130000 per additional QALY gained for the tenth day. Cost-effectiveness was poorer for infants who were born at gestational ages >30 weeks. Results were sensitive to the proportion of charted apneas requiring stimulation that would actually progress, without intervention, to respiratory arrest. CONCLUSIONS: In this model, the cost-effectiveness of predischarge monitoring for apnea of prematurity declined significantly as the duration of monitoring was increased. Consideration should be given to alternative uses for resources in formulating neonatal discharge guidelines.

Cost implications of event recordings in apnea/bradycardia home monitoring: a theoretical analysis.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the financial impact of incorporating event recordings as an integral component of home apnea/bradycardia monitoring. STUDY DESIGN: This theoretical analysis examines the cost of home monitoring when medical decisions are based on an evaluation of the cardiorespiratory waveforms surrounding each apnea/bradycardia monitor alarm (documented monitoring) compared to those based on parental observations. Data for both approaches were obtained from 155 infants referred within the first 10 days of life, because a sibling died of sudden infant death syndrome. All were followed on an impedance type apnea/bradycardia monitor with an attached event recorder. The monitor settings were 20 seconds for apnea and 80 beats per minute (bpm) for bradycardia. Parents were taught how to use the equipment, resuscitative techniques, and to complete an alarm log. The clinical protocol provided for home monitoring until there were no "episodes" (prolonged apnea or prolonged bradycardia) for 16 consecutive weeks. A polysomnogram would be obtained if an "episode" occurred. For each infant two independent approaches were used to judge the occurrence of an "episode": (1) parental report of an apnea alarm occurring during sleep or a physiologic alarm associated with skin color change or resuscitative intervention and (2) apnea > or = 20 seconds long or bradycardia > or = 10 seconds. The cost was calculated assuming a 4-week monitor rental fee of $350, a 4-week waveform interpretation fee of $180, and a $600 fee for performing and interpreting a polysomnogram. RESULTS: Episodes defined from an interpretation of the cardiorespiratory waveforms resulted in fewer diagnostic studies, a shorter period of home monitoring, and lower per patient treatment costs. CONCLUSION: Despite the increased monthly cost, incorporating event recordings as an integral component of home monitoring resulted in a lower average per patient cost.

Third-party payor billing and reimbursement for nursing services: infant apnea management.

This article examines the process of implementing a program for billing third-party payors for the services of the pediatric clinical nurse specialist. Factors to consider when initiating a billing program are discussed, as well as guidelines for structuring the charges, obstacles to reimbursement and strategies to overcome them, and benefits (both direct and indirect) of implementing such a program. Examples are cited from apnea management programs at two major children's hospitals in the southwestern United States. Implications are made regarding generalizing these methods to other nursing services and practices.