La tuberculosis, desde un problema de salud hasta un arma biológica / Tuberculosis from a health problem to a biological weapon

La tuberculosis es el principal asesino infeccioso del mundo, sin embargo, no constituye una prioridad política. Con el conocimiento que se tiene de la tuberculosis, se está en capacidad de controlarla y erradicarla, pues se cuenta con métodos probados de diagnóstico y esquemas terapéuticos efectivos. Pero existen factores que perpetúan el problema, como la inequidad social, la pandemia del VIH/ sida, el incremento de las poblaciones de riesgo, la inexistencia de una vacuna protectora, las deficiencias en los programas de control y la drogo resistencia. El desarrollo de la tuberculosis resistente a múltiples drogas revela debilitamiento de los servicios asistenciales, se considera un indicador de negligencia en salud pública. En la actualidad solo se logra curación en el 52 por ciento de los pacientes, con regímenes de 21-24 meses y un costo por paciente de 50 000 a 100 000 dólares estadounidenses. El incremento de la resistencia y la capacidad que tiene la tuberculosis para aprovechar y acentuar las desigualdades socioeconómicas en una población, aumenta la desestabilización de un área o país, lo cual ha llevado a que esta enfermedad sea incluida en la lista de posibles armas biológicas. En este trabajo se analizan los factores que hacen de la tuberculosis una enfermedad social, las acciones necesarias para su control, así como su papel como arma bioterrorista(AU)

Tuberculosis remains as the world's leading infectious killer, but it is not a political priority. With the knowledge of Tuberculosis, it is able to control and eradicate it, as there are proven methods of diagnosis and effective therapeutic schemes. But there are factors that perpetuate the problem, such as social inequality, the HIV/AIDS pandemic, the increase in risk populations, the absence of a protective vaccine, deficiencies in Tuberculosis control programs and drug resistance. The development of multi-drug resistant and extremely resistant Tuberculosis reveals a weakening of care services, so Tuberculosis from being a preventable and curable disease, is becoming a virtually incurable disease is considered an indicator of public health negligence. At present, healing is only achieved in 52 percent of patients with 21-24-month regimens and a cost per patient of 50,000 to 100,000 US dollars. The increase in multi-resistance and the ability of Tuberculosis to take advantage of and accentuate socioeconomic inequalities in a population, increasing the destabilization of an area or country has led to this disease being included in the list of possible biological weapons. Taking into account the importance of this disease, the factors that can influence its control and its role as a bioterrorist weapon, it was decided to analyze the elements that make Tuberculosis a social disease and a health emergency are analyzed(AU)

La guerra biológica: un desafío para la humanidad / Biological warfare: a challenge for humanity

Fundamento: el control de enfermedades transmisibles contribuye al empleo ilegítimo de los agentes biológicos, de manera inicial con fines bélicos o criminales y en la actualidad con fines terroristas. Objetivo: describir la problemática del empleo de las armas biológicas, sus diferentes aristas y en su forma actual con fines terroristas y los aspectos que prohíben su uso según la normativa internacional vigente. Métodos: se realizó una revisión bibliográfica con el método de análisis bibliográfico con una búsqueda realizada entre los años 2000 al 2017, donde se consultaron bases de datos especializadas y se seleccionaron 31 publicaciones científicas sobre el tema. Desarrollo: se realizó un análisis del tema de la guerra biológica basado en los agentes utilizados y la amenaza que constituye su empleo, pues provocan enfermedades y causan la muerte al afectar la salud de los seres vivos y el medio ambiente. Los avances tecnológicos en Biología e Ingeniería genética de las últimas décadas posibilitan modificar y crear nuevos microorganismos más resistentes al tratamiento y en particular en la búsqueda de inoculación de enfermedades como el cáncer. La biodefensa es el conjunto de medidas para la prevención y actuación frente a una alerta sanitaria donde está implicado el uso de los agentes biológicos con fines bélicos. Conclusiones: los agentes biológicos se utilizan como armas para ocasionar daños en circunstancias de guerra biológica y bioterrorismo, por ser de forma potencial el arma más destructiva conocida por la humanidad que implica aspectos políticos, económicos, científico-tecnológicos, jurídicos y psicológicos, por lo que la biodefensa protege a las personas y el medio ambiente con el uso de medidas sanitarias contra dichos agentes(AU)

Background: the control of transmittable diseases contributes to the illegitimate use of biological agents, initially for war or criminal purposes and currently for terrorist purposes. Objective: to describe the problem of the use of biological weapons, its different edges and in its current form for terrorist purposes and the aspects that prohibit its use according to current international regulations.Methods: a bibliographic review was made with the bibliographic analysis method with a search conducted between 2000 and 2017, where specialized databases were consulted and 31 scientific publications on the subject were selected.Development: an analysis on the issue of biological warfare was made based on the agents used and the threat that constitutes their use, since they cause diseases and cause death by affecting the health of living beings and the environment. They are harmful and include knowledge of science, technology, engineering and involve other areas, such as economics, law, the legal framework that limits or not the obtaining of materials and the psychological aspects of such attacks. The technological advances in Biology and Genetic engineering of recent decades make it possible to modify and create new microorganisms that are more resistant to treatment and in particular in the search for the inoculation of diseases such as cancer. The biodefense is the set of measures for the prevention and action facing a sanitary alert where the use of the biological agents with war aims is implied. Conclusions: biological agents are used as weapons to cause damage in circumstances of biological warfare and bioterrorism, as it is potentially the most destructive weapon known to humanity that involves political, economic, scientific-technological, legal and psychological aspects, which is why biodefense protects people and the environment with the use of sanitary measures against above-mentioned agents(AU)

Comparison of Aerosol- and Percutaneous-acquired Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis in Humans and Nonhuman Primates for Suitability in Predicting Clinical Efficacy under the Animal Rule.

Licensure of medical countermeasure vaccines to protect against aerosolized Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) requires the use of the Animal Rule to assess vaccine efficacy, because human studies are not feasible or ethical. We therefore performed a retrospective study of VEE cases that occurred in at-risk laboratory workers and support personnel during the United States Biowarfare Program (1943-1969) to better define percutaneous- and aerosol-acquired VEE in humans and to compare these results with those described for the NHP model (in which high-dose aerosol VEEV challenge led to more severe encephalitis than parenteral challenge). Record review and analysis of 17 aerosol- and 23 percutaneous-acquired human cases of VEE included incubation period, symptoms, physical examination findings, and markers of infection. Human VEE disease by both exposure routes presented as acute febrile illness, typically with fever, chills, headache, back pain, malaise, myalgia, anorexia, and nausea. Aerosol exposure more commonly led to upper respiratory tract-associated findings of sore throat (59% compared with 26%), pharyngeal erythema (76% compared with 52%), neck pain (29% compared with 4%), and cervical lymphadenopathy (29% compared with 4%). Other disease manifestations, including encephalitis, were similar between the 2 exposure groups. The increase in upper respiratory tract findings in aerosol-acquired VEE in humans has not previously been reported but is supported by the mouse model, which showed nasal mucosal necrosis, necrotizing rhinitis, and an increase in upper respiratory tract viral burden associated with aerosol VEEV challenge. Fever, viremia, and lymphopenia were common markers of VEE disease in both humans and NHP, regardless of the exposure route. Taken collectively, our findings provide support for use of the nonlethal NHP model for advanced development of medical countermeasures against aerosol- or percutaneous-acquired VEE.

The History of Biological Weapons Use: What We Know and What We Don't.

This article critically reviews the literature on the history of biological warfare, bioterrorism, and biocrimes. The first serious effort to review this entire history, made in 1969, had numerous limitations. In recent decades, several authors have filled many of the gaps in our understanding of the past use of biological agents (including both pathogens and toxins), making it possible to reconstruct that history with greater fidelity than previously possible. Nevertheless, there are numerous remaining gaps, and closer inspection indicates that some supposed uses of biological weapons never took place or are poorly substantiated. Topics requiring additional research are identified.

Estrategia pedagógica para preparar al profesional de la medicina ante las consecuencias de las armas biológicas / Pedagogical Strategy for the Medical Preparation before the Human Consequences of Biological Weapons

Introducción: el diseño de una estrategia pedagógica ayuda a la superación profesional del médico ante las consecuencias del empleo de las armas biológicas en humanos.Objetivo: fundamentar la utilidad de una estrategia pedagógica para la preparación médica sobre cómo enfrentar las consecuencias del empleo de las armas biológicas en humanos. Método: a través de una investigación pedagógica y utilizando métodos teóricos y empíricos de investigación se determinaron previamente (por encuestas y pruebas pedagógicas) las necesidades de superación de 40 médicos, muestra seleccionada de forma intencional. Los métodos de investigación utilizados para llegar a conformar los componentes de la estrategia son la modelación y el sistémico, a partir de un enfoque dialéctico-materialista.Resultados: la estrategia diseñada y aplicada se estructuró en cuatro etapas: diagnóstico, planificación, ejecución y evaluación.Conclusiones: la estrategia elaborada permitió resolver las dificultades para el desarrollo del proceso enseñanza aprendizaje de las enfermedades que resultan del empleo de las armas químicas y biológicas, y una mejor preparación en los médicos en cuanto al diagnóstico y tratamiento de ellas.(AU)

Introduction: designing a teaching strategy helps the professional development of the physician to the consequences of the use of biological weapons in humansObjective: to support a pedagogical strategy to medical physicians to face contingency generated by biological weapons.Methods: the overcoming needs were previously determined through a pedagogical investigation and with the use of theoretical and empirical methods, surveys and educational tests that were applied in a sample of 40 doctors, intentionally selected. The investigative methods used to reach the components of such strategy were the modelling and the systemic one, departing from a dialectical materialist approach.Results: the strategy was divided into four stages: diagnosis, planning, implementation, and evaluation.Conclusions: the designed strategy allowed to solve the difficulties for the development of the learning-teaching process of the illnesses resulting from the use of biological weapons, as well as a better training in doctors regarding the diagnosis and treatment of these diseases.(AU)

Molecular modeling toward selective inhibitors of dihydrofolate reductase from the biological warfare agent Bacillus anthracis.

In the present work, we applied docking and molecular dynamics techniques to study 11 compounds inside the enzymes dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) from the biological warfare agent Bacillus anthracis (BaDHFR) and Homo sapiens sapiens (HssDHFR). Six of these compounds were selected for a study with the mutant BaF96IDHFR. Our results corroborated with experimental data and allowed the proposition of a new molecule with potential activity and better selectivity for BaDHFR.

Factibilidad y pertinencia de una estrategia pedagógica para la preparación médica especial / Feasibility and pertinence of a pedagogical strategy for the special medical training

Fundamento: la preparación del profesional de la salud para enfrentar las consecuencias de las armas químicas y biológicas en humanos, es una misión de la universidad médica cubana. Objetivo: evaluar la factibilidad y pertinencia de una estrategia pedagógica de superación profesional médica para la enseñanza del diagnóstico y tratamiento de las consecuencias del empleo de las armas químicas y biológicas en humanos. Métodos: se realizó una investigación que culminó con la aplicación de un pre-experimento pedagógico en la sede universitaria Hospital Militar de Holguín, durante el curso 2010-2011. La muestra estuvo constituida por 20 especialistas en Medicina General Integral. Se utilizaron métodos teóricos: histórico-lógico, analítico-sintético y sistémico estructural y funcional; empíricos: la encuesta, criterio de especialistas por el método Delphi; del matemático: la estadística descriptiva con distribución de frecuencias absoluta y en porcientos y la prueba de signos. Resultados: se identificaron insuficiencias en los médicos para el diagnóstico y tratamiento de las consecuencias de las armas químicas y biológicas en humanos, por lo cual se diseñó y aplicó una estrategia pedagógica para la apropiación de los conocimientos y habilidades necesarios en estos casos. Conclusiones: la estrategia elaborada permitió resolver las dificultades para el desarrollo del proceso enseñanza aprendizaje de las enfermedades que resultan del empleo de las armas químicas y biológicas, y una mejor preparación en los médicos en cuanto al diagnóstico y tratamiento de ellas. Los especialistas consideran la estrategia de muy adecuada y bastante adecuada, lo que demuestra el grado de pertinencia y relevancia para su aplicación.

Background: the professional training in order to face the consequences in human beings of the chemical and biological weapons is a mission of the Cuban medical university. Objective: to devise a strategy for the teaching of the diagnosis and treatment of the effects in human beings of the chemical and biological weapons. Methods: a research project was done that culminated in the application of a pedagogical pre-experiment at the University Venue Military Hospital of Holguín during the 2010-2011 academic year. The sample was chosen through a non-probabilistic sampling, composed of 20 specialists in Integral General Medicine. Theoretical methods were used: historical-logical, analytical-synthetic, inductive-deductive, modeling and systemic, structural and functional; empirical: Delphi method and survey; mathematical: descriptive statistics with distribution of absolute frequency and in percentage. Results: insufficiencies were identified among the doctors for the diagnosis and treatment of the effects in human beings of chemical and biological weapons, being this reason why a pedagogical strategy was designed and applied for the acquisition of the knowledge and skills that are necessary in these cases. Conclusions: the designed strategy allows to solve the difficulties for the development of the learning-teaching process of the illnesses resulting from the use of chemical and biological weapons, as well as a better training in doctors regarding their diagnosis and treatment. The specialists assessed the strategy in general as very adequate, what shows the degree of relevance and pertinence for its application.

Governança de novas dimensões de segurança internacional: Doenças infecciosas emergentes / Governance of new dimensions of international security: Emerging infectious diseases

Esse estudo objetiva compreender de que forma se estrutura a governança de uma nova dimensão de segurança internacional: as doenças infecciosas emergentes (DIEs). Inicialmente, discute-se como o tema das doenças infecciosas ­ em geral ­ tem sido apresentado pela literatura acadêmica especializada como novos riscos à segurança internacional. A partir desse escrutínio, foi possível organizar as contribuições de diversos autores sobre o tema, propondo cinco abordagens diferentes da relação entre doenças infecciosas e segurança internacional. A partir disso, averígua-se a maneira mais adequada para compreender a governança das DIEs com a análise das teorias de governança nos campos das Relações Internacionais e da "saúde global". Nesse contexto, e com essas ferramentas, mapeiam-se os atores e dispositivos internacionais que caracterizam a governança das doenças infecciosas, e, posteriormente a das DIEs. Do ponto de vista metodológico, essa dissertação adota o modelo analítico de Young (1999) e Fidler (2002) para analisar a principal peça jurídica desse regime, o Regulamento Sanitário Internacional, examinando sua evolução entre versões de 1969 e 2005 em seus componentes substantivos, processuais e de implementação. Essa análise inova ao apresentar, de um ângulo original, o desenvolvimento da governança internacional das DIEs nas últimas décadas.

This study aims to understand how is developed the governance of a new dimension of international security: emerging infectious diseases (EIDs). At first, we discuss how the topic of infectious disease - in general - have been presented by the academic literature as new risk to international security. From this analysis, it was possible to organize the contributions of various authors on the subject by proposing five different approaches to the relationship between infectious diseases and international security. After that, this study investigates the most appropriate way to understand the governance of EIDs analyzing theories of governance in the fields of International Relations and "global health." In this sense, and adopting these tools, it was possible to map actors and international devices that are involved in the governance of infectious diseases, and later in the EID. Methodologically, this dissertation adopts the analytical model of Young (1999) and Fidler (2002) to analyze the centerpiece of this regime, the International Health Regulations, tracing its development between its 1969 and 2005 versions. This analysis innovates for it presents, from an original point of view, the development of international governance of EIDs in recent decades.

Método clínico-analógico para la preparación ante las consecuencias del uso de las armas biológicas / Clinical-Analog Method for the Preparation of the Consequences of Biological Weapons Use

Introducción: las armas productoras de bajas múltiples están prohibidas por acuerdos internacionales, pero a pesar de esta prohibición existen ejemplos de su utilización por algunos países. Este hecho deviene en una necesidad educativa para el personal médico que potencialmente tiene que atender a las víctimas de dicho armamento.Objetivo: elaborar un método de enseñanza que facilite el abordaje didáctico del contenido relacionado con el diagnóstico y tratamiento de las consecuencias humanas del empleo de las armas biológicas.Método: se emplearon métodos teóricos como el histórico-lógico, analítico-sintético, inductivo-deductivo, modelación y sistémico estructural y funcional. Se estructuró con un perfil pedagógico, la manera de impartir el contenido de referencia.Resultados: se diseñó un método de enseñanza que propicia el desarrollo de conocimientos y habilidades asociadas con las funciones del médico y los problemas profesionales a resolver en un escenario donde se utilice dicho armamento.Conclusiones: con la introducción del método clínico-analógico se lograron resolver las dificultades en el desarrollo del proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje de las enfermedades resultadas del empleo de las armas biológicas. El método se logró de la interrelación del método clínico, el analógico y de los síndromes paralelos.(AU)

Introduction: the production of biological weapons is prohibited by international agreements, but despite this prohibition, there are examples of its use by some countries. This turns into an educational need for the medical staff that has to deal with the victims of these weapons use.Objective: to develop a teaching method to facilitate the teaching approach of the content related to the diagnosis and treatment of the human consequences due to biological weapons use.Methods: theoretical methods such as historical logical, analysis synthesis, inductivedeductive, modeling, systemic –structural and functional were used. The method was structured with pedagogical profile, considering the way of teaching the content.Results: a teaching method was designed to facilitate the development of the knowledge and skills associated to the medical functions and professional problems to be solved in a scenario where these weapons are used.Conclusions: through the introduction of the clinical-analog method, the difficulties related with the development of the teaching-learning process considering the diseases caused by the use weapons were solved. The method was achieved by the interaction of the clinical method, the analog and parallel syndromes.(AU)

Normativas internacionais de proteção contra bioterrorismo e biocrimes: lacunas e vulnerabilidades no Brasil / International standards for protection against bioterrorism and biocrimes: gaps and vulnerabilities in Brazil

Saúde Global pode ser entendida como questões de saúde que transcendem fronteiras nacionais e demandam intervenções nos assuntos que determinam a saúde das populações. Atualmente, os Estados deparam-se seguidamente com problemas e crises relacionadas à área da saúde. Em relação à segurança nacional, essa preocupação se manifesta sob a forma de ameaças de proliferação de Armas Biológicas e de Bioterrorismo. A comunidade internacional tem se esforçado para propor normas que previnam tais atos. Os melhores exemplos são a Convenção para a Proibição de Armas Biológicas e suas Toxinas (CPAB), a Resolução 1540 do Conselho de Segurança das Nações Unidas (Res 1540/CSNU) e o Regulamento Sanitário Internacional (RSI). Contudo, existem várias lacunas e vulnerabilidades que podem ser exploradas nesses documentos. O escopo desse estudo é propor questionamentos a partir da Análise Documental desses tratados, ponderando a articulação entre os órgãos nacionais com a responsabilidade de prevenção, controle e resiliência contra ataques biológicos. O Brasil é signatário das principais normativas internacionais direcionadas à prevenção e controle de uso intencional de agentes biológicos e vem respondendo a contento à comunidade internacional. Ainda assim, é necessário mais que uma resposta formal a entidades supranacionais para prover, efetivamente, a devida proteção à população. O País possui capacidades técnicas estruturadas de forma isolada e fragmentada em diversos órgãos inexistindo um sistema formalmente instituído para a prevenção,resposta e controle de ataques bioterroristas...

Global Health can be understood as health issues that transcend national borders andrequire intervention in matters that determine the health of populations. Currently, States face crisis and problems related to health realm. Regarding national security, thisconcern is manifested in the form of threats of Biological Weapons proliferation and Bioterrorism. The international community has endeavored to propose regulations that prevent such acts. The best examples of it are the Convention for the Prohibition ofBiological Weapons and their Toxins (BWC), the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540 (Res 1540/UNSC) and the International Health Regulations (IHR). However, there are several gaps and vulnerabilities that can be exploited in thesedocuments. The scope of this study is questioning these treaties using DocumentAnalysis, pondering the link between national entities responsible for prevention,control and resilience against biological attacks. Brazil is signatory of the major international instruments aimed at the prevention and control of biological agentsintentional use and has responded satisfactorily to the international community. Never theless, it takes more than a formal supranational response to provide effectivelyappropriate protection to population. The country owns technical capabilities not connected, distributed in several organs and lacks a system for the prevention, responseand control of bioterrorist attacks. Likewise, there is no national protocol established inorder to coordinate the activities of the bodies responsible for controlling the threat. Factors that determine individuals or groups to employ biological agents and toxins intheir violent attacks are not fully understood. Thus, more reckless than exacerbate therisk of intentional actions with biological agents is not being properly prepared toprevent and control such acts...

Las fiebres hemorrágicas víricas como síndromes paralelos / Viral hemorrhagic fevers as parallel syndromes

Se presentan algunos aspectos clínico-epidemiológicos, así como del tratamiento de un grupo de enfermedades de gran importancia para la medicina militar, cuyos agentes etiológicos pueden ser utilizados como armas biológicas en tiempo de guerra y actos de bioterrorismo. En eventos como estos, las enfermedades en cuestión, presentes en la práctica médica, pueden ser estudiadas y modelado el diagnóstico y la intervención terapéutica, lo que posibilita su condición de síndrome paralelo(AU)

Some clinical and epidemiological aspects as well the treatment of a group of diseases of great significant for the military medicine were presented. Their etiological agents could be used as biological weapons in war times and in bioterrorist actions. Under those circumstances, the diseases as such, which are present in the medical practice, can be studied and their diagnosis and therapeutic intervention can be modeled, which facilitates their condition as parallel syndromes(AU)

Bioterrorismo e a facilidade de acesso à biotecnologia e seus insumos / Bioterrorism and easy access to biotechnology and its inputs

Os fundamentalismos surgiram no Ocidente a partir de questões religiosas e posteriormente difundiram-se para outras partes do mundo tomando outras conotações, principalmente políticas. As técnicas de manipulação genética difundiram-se pelas universidades, que formam mestres e doutores com os conhecimentos básicos sobre clonagem gênica, que se tornou de domínio público. Todos os insumos para clonagem gênica podem ser adquiridos por meio de catálogos via internet. Podem-se recrutar profissionais fanáticos e com a competência para a manipulação genética de organismos patogênicos, lado perverso da biotecnologia. Os conflitos étnicos, culturais e religiosos estão associados a um cenário de contrastes entre os países ricos e carentes de matéria-prima e aqueles pobres, mas detentores de insumos básicos e energia, e atingem a sua forma mais aguda nos fundamentalismos. Grupos de fanáticos têm pleno acesso a essa biotecnologia. Estariam assim as populações civis vulneráveis aos ataques do bioterrorismo com armas biológicas geneticamente modificadas?.

Fundamentalism arose in the West based in religious matters and afterward diffused to other parts of theworld with other connotations, especially political. Genetic manipulation techniques spread to universities,which has given masters and doctors the basic knowledge on gene cloning, which has become public domain.All inputs for gene cloning may be obtained through online catalogs. Fanatic professionals may be recruited,with qualification for genetic manipulation of pathogenic organisms, the negative side of biotechnology. Eth-nic, cultural and religious conflicts are linked to a series of contrasts between countries that are rich but witha lack of raw materials and the poor countries that possess basic input and energy sources, when it reachesthe highest fundamentalist form. Fanatic groups have complete access to this biotechnology. Are civilian po-pulations in vulnerable to bioterrorist attacks involving genetically modified biological weapons?

Molecular modeling studies on nucleoside hydrolase from the biological warfare agent Brucella suis.

Brucella suis is a dangerous biological warfare agent already used for military purposes. This bacteria cause brucellosis, a zoonosis highly infective and difficult to fight. An important selective target for chemotherapy against this disease is nucleoside hydrolase (NH), an enzyme still not found in mammals. We present here the first three-dimensional structure of B. suis NH (BsNH) and propose this enzyme as a molecular target to the drug design in the fight against brucellosis. In addition, we performed molecular docking studies, aiming to analyze the three-dimensional positioning of nine known inhibitors of Chritidia fasciculata NH (CfNH) in the active sites of BsNH and CfNH. We also analyzed the main interactions of some of these compounds inside the active site of BsNH and the relevant factors to biological activity. These results, together with further molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, pointed out to the most promising compound as lead for the design of potential inhibitors of BsNH. Most of the docking and MD results corroborated to each other and the docking results also suggested a good correlation with experimental data.

Bioética e armas biológicas no contexto internacional / Bioethics and biological weapons in the international context

O estudo "Bioética e Armas Biológicas no Contexto Internacional" investiga a aplicação de análise sob a ótica da bioética de intervenção a diálogos internacionais no âmbito de um sistema de estados. O estudo de caso testa o método de investigação que consiste na identificação de valores e posicionamentos contratantes entre países desenvolvidos e em desenvolvimento e suas possibilidades de incorporação a regras, normas e regulações adotadas pela comunidade internacional. Nesse processo é verificado o equilíbrio de oportunidades entre países do Norte e do Sul para inserirem suas necessidades e interesses nas normas de convivência entre Estados como indicativo das condições de justiça e equidade no âmbito do diálogo internacional. As armas biológicas são tomadas como estudo de caso por sua relação intrínseca com a saúde e com a integridade de populações vulneráveis dos países periféricos

The study "Bioethics and biological weapons in an international context" investigates the application of an analysis from the perspective of intervention bioethics to international dialogues within a system of States. The case study tests the research method which consists in identifying and contrasting positions between developed and developing countries and their possibilities of their incorporation to rules, standards and regulations adopted by the international community. The analysis also considers the balance of opportunities between countries from the North and the South to insert their needs and interests in the rules of coexistence among States as indicative of the conditions of justice and equity in international dialogue. Biological weapons are taken as a case study for its intrinsic relationship with human health and the health of vulnerable populations of peripheral countries

O desenvolvimento biológico em conexão com a guerra / The Biological development in connection with the war

O século XX foi cenário da construção de um sistema para a operacionalização da ciência estratégica das grandes potências, chamada Big Science. Este sistema é constituído por uma vasta rede institucional integrada, o "complexo militar-industrial-acadêmico", que desenvolve pesquisas estratégicas e direciona a ciência de ponta. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar a lógica desta construção sob a ótica do poder, fazendo um contraponto entre os desenvolvimentos tecnológicos da Física e da Biologia. Os movimentos de poder identificam algumas características que, em tese, refletem o incentivo para indução do desenvolvimento científico da modernidade, potencializado na era atômica com a fabricação de armas de destruição em massa, as armas de alta tecnologia. Nesta perspectiva, buscamos a relevância do desenvolvimento biológico de interesse político-militar, tomando por base a fabricação de três gerações de armas ao longo do século XX, com crescente posicionamento na corrida armamentista. Esta análise envolve as décadas de 1940 até 1980, na busca de demonstrar uma convergência técnico-política nas trajetórias do desenvolvimento biológico e da guerra biológica, que culminou numa conexão científico-militar no início da era biotecnológica.

The XX Century was the scenario for the construction of a system devoted to operationalizing the strategic science of the great potentials named the Big Science. This system comprehends a vast institutional and integrated network, the "military-industrial-academic complex", which carries out strategic research and guides high quality science. The objective of this study was to investigate the logics of such construction under the perspective of power, highlighting a counterpoint between the technological development of Physics and Biology. The power movement points to some characteristics, that theoretically reflect the incentive to the induction of the scientific development of modern times, potentialized during the atomic age by the manufacturing of high technology weapons. In this perspective one can search the relevance of the biological development of political-military interest in the three-generation manufacturing of weapons throughout the XX Century, and the participation in the armaments race. This historiographic analysis encompasses the decades of 1940 through 1980, in an attempt to show the ethnical-political convergence in the paths taken by the biological development and the biological war which eventually led to a scientific and military connection at the beginning of the biotechnological era.