Cataphryxus zapoteca sp. nov. (Isopoda, Bopyridae) and new hosts and records of bopyrid isopods from the Mexican Eastern Pacific.

Based on the examination of diverse crustacean taxa collected along the Mexican Pacific and deposited in the Colección Nacional de Crustáceos of the Instituto de Biología, UNAM, six species of bopyrid isopods were detected. New hosts and localities are reported for Munidion pleuroncodis Markham, 1975, Probopyrus pacificensis Román-Contreras, 1993, Probopyrus markhami Román-Contreras, 1996, Progebiophilus bruscai Salazar-Vallejo & Leija-Tristán, 1990 and Schizobopyrina striata (Nierstrasz & Brender à Brandis, 1929). Cataphryxus zapoteca sp. nov., is described as abdominal parasite of the shrimp Lysmata galapagensis Schmitt; this bopyrid is the second species described in the genus Cataphryxus Shiino, 1936 and the first registered on the American continent. Taxonomic characters, distribution and some reproductive data for five of the six species examined are provided in order to update the knowledge of this parasite group in this Eastern Pacific region.

Two new species and a new record of Bopyrinae (Isopoda: Bopyridae) infesting Alpheidae and Hippolytidae, with comments on the genus Bopyrina Kossmann, 1881.

Two new bopyrids, Bopyrinina articulata n. sp. and Bopyrinella asymmetrica n. sp. are described from French Polynesia, the Red Sea, and the Philippines. Bopyrinina articulata n.sp. infests Salmoneus cf. gracilipes Miya, and is distinguishable from other species of this genus by the structure of the maxilliped, pleopods and oostegite 1. Bopyrinella asymmetrica n. sp. is most similar to Bopyrinella albida Shiino, 1958, but females differ from that species because all pereomeres on the short side have round dorsolateral bosses and its pleotelson is greatly distorted. Bopyrina ocellata (Czerniavsky, 1868) is newly recorded from the Western Atlantic, from Florida, USA. Review of the species of Bopyrina revealed that B. choprai Nierstrasz & Brender à Brandis, 1929 and B. sewelli Chopra, 1930 are intermediate in morphology between Bopyrina and Schizobopyrina, the taxonomic assignment of these two species needs further evaluation. Keys to Bopyrinella Nierstrasz & Brender à Brandis, 1925 and Bopyrina Kossmann, 1881 are presented. Hosts and distributions of the seven species of Bopyrinella are summarized.

A novel positive single-stranded RNA virus from the crustacean parasite, Probopyrinella latreuticola (Peracarida: Isopoda: Bopyridae).

A positive, single-stranded RNA virus is identified from the transcriptome of Probopyrinella latreuticola Gissler, 1882; a bopyrid isopod parasite of the Sargassum shrimp, Latreutes fucorum Fabricius, 1789. The viral sequence is 13,098 bp in length (including polyA), encoding four open reading frames (ORF). ORF-1 encodes a polyprotein, with three computationally discernible functional domains: viral methyltransferase; viral helicase; and RNA-directed RNA polymerase. The remaining ORFs encode a transmembrane protein, a capsid protein and a protein of undetermined function. The raw transcriptomic data reveal a low level of background single nucleotide mutations within the data. Comparison of the protein sequence data and synteny with other viral isolates reveals that the greatest protein similarity (<39%) is shared with the Negevirus group, a group that exclusively infects insects. Phylogenetic assessment of the individual polyprotein domains revealed a mixed prediction of phylogenetic origins, suggesting with low confidence that the novel +ssRNA virus could be present in multiple places throughout the individual gene trees. A concatenated approach strongly suggested that this new virus is an early diverging isolate, branching before the Negevirus and Cilevirus groups. Alongside the new isolate are other marine viruses, also present toward the base of the tree. The isopod virosphere, with the addition of this novel virus, is discussed relative to viral genomics/systematics. A great diversity of nege-like viruses appears to be present in marine invertebrate hosts, which require greater efforts for discovery and identification.

Seasonal influence of parasitism on contamination patterns of the mud shrimp Upogebia cf. pusilla in an area of low pollution.

Very few studies have characterized the concentrations of pollutants in bioturbating species. These species are considered as ecosystem engineers and characterizing stressors, such as contaminants, that impact them could lead to a better understanding of the functioning of ecosystems. In addition to contaminants, bioturbators are affected by a wide range of stressors, which can influence their physiological status and their ability to accumulate pollutants. Among these stressors, parasitism is of particular concern due to the ubiquity of parasites in natural environments and their influence on the fitness of their host. This study aims to assess the relationship between parasitism and metal accumulation in the bioturbating mud shrimp Upogebia cf. pusilla. A one-year seasonal survey was conducted in Arcachon Bay, France, with the aims of (1) characterizing the levels of metals in the mud shrimp and (2) evaluating the influence of two macroparasites (a bopyrid isopod and a trematode) on the variation of the metal content in mud shrimp. The bopyrid parasite castrates its female host and a particular attention has therefore been paid to the reproductive cycle of female mud shrimp by quantifying the expression of the vitellogenin gene that encodes the major yolk protein in female crustaceans. The levels of contaminants in mud shrimp appeared low compared to those reported in other crustaceans in areas of higher pollution. Even at these low contamination levels, we observed a significant impact by the bopyrid parasite that depends on season: bopyrid-infested organisms are generally more contaminated than their uninfested conspecifics except in summer when the opposite trend was observed. We suggest that the bopyrid indirectly interferes with the metal accumulation process by altering the reproductive capabilities of the mud shrimp. On the opposite, very low influence of the trematode parasite on the metal content of the host was found.

A new species of Clausidium Kossmann, 1874 (Copepoda: Cyclopoida) associated with ghost shrimps from the Persian Gulf, including female-male interlocking mechanisms and remarks on host specificity.

A new clausidiid copepod was found associated with the ghost shrimp Neocallichirus jousseaumei (Nobili) in the Persian Gulf, on the Iranian coast. The new species shares the armature formula of swimming legs 2 to 4 with C. persiaensis, but can be easily distinguished from its congeners by unique characteristics of the females: the prominent spine on endopodal segment 1 of the antenna, the armature of the maxilliped, and the elongated basis of the swimming legs. Distinguishing features observed in males include the distinct projections on the maxilliped and the armature of legs 1 and 4. In addition to traditional light microscopy-based descriptions, confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) was used to obtain high resolution images and 3-D reconstructions of entire copepods. Structures of taxonomic importance that exhibit complex shapes (male maxilliped and female urosome) were scanned to generate 3-D prints that gave valuable insights about female/male interlocking mechanisms. The taxonomic status and host specificity of Clausidium spp. are discussed and a key to valid species is provided.

How does the bopyrid isopod Gyge branchialis interfere with trace metal bioaccumulation in the mud shrimp Upogebia cf. pusilla?

Parasites are widespread in natural environments, and their impacts on the fitness of their host and, at a broader scale, on ecosystem functioning are well recognized. Over the last two decades, there has been an increasing interest in the effects of parasites in conjunction with other stressors, especially pollutants, on the health of organisms. For instance, parasites can interfere with the bioaccumulation process of contaminants in their host leading to parasitized organisms exhibiting lower pollutants burdens than unparasitized individuals for example. However, the mechanisms underlying these patterns are not well understood. This study examined how the bopyrid parasite Gyge branchialis could lower the cadmium (Cd) uptake of its mud shrimp host Upogebia cf. pusilla. When exposed to water-borne Cd, parasites were able to bioaccumulate this trace metal. However, the uptake of Cd by the parasite was low and cannot entirely explain the deficit of Cd contamination of the host. The weight of gills of parasitized organisms was significantly reduced compared with unparasitized organisms. We suggest that by reducing the surface for metal uptake, parasites could lower the contaminant burden of their host.

Do trace metal contamination and parasitism influence the activities of the bioturbating mud shrimp Upogebia cf. pusilla?

Mud shrimp are considered as among the most influential ecosystem engineers in marine soft bottom environments because of their significant bioturbation activity and their high density. These organisms play a key role on the physical structure of sediments through intense sediment reworking activity and also deeply influence geochemical properties of sediments via frequent bioirrigation events. The influence that mud shrimp have on the environment is related to the magnitude of bioturbation processes and subsequently depends on their physiological condition. In natural environments, several factors act together and influence the well-being of organisms. Among them, the deleterious role of parasites on the physiology and the behavior of their host is well established. Aquatic organisms are also subject to pollutants released by anthropogenic activities. However, the effect of both stressors on the fitness and bioturbation activity of mud shrimp has never been investigated yet. We conducted a 14-day ex-situ experiment to evaluate the influence of trace metal contamination (cadmium Cd) and parasitism infestation on the gene expression (molecular endpoint) and sediment reworking activity (behavioral endpoint) of the mud shrimp Upogebia cf. pusilla. At completion, mud shrimp exhibited substantial Cd bioaccumulation, with parasitized organisms showing a significantly lower contaminant burden than unparasitized specimens. Cadmium contamination induces modifications of gene expression in both unparasitized and parasitized organisms. We report an antagonistic effect of both stressors on gene expression, which cannot be fully explained by a lower Cd bioaccumulation. At the behaviour level, parasitism seems to reduce the sediment reworking activity of mud shrimp, while Cd contamination appears to stimulate this activity. This study highlights that the effects of multiple stressors may be quite different from the effects of each stressor considered individually. It should also motivate for more studies evaluating the influence of multiple stressors on different endpoints encompassing various levels of organization.

Paragonimus and paragonimiasis in West and Central Africa: unresolved questions.

Paragonimiasis, human lung fluke disease, is a foodborne anthropozoonosis caused by the trematodes assigned to Paragonimus and is regarded by the World Health Organization as a Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD). The life cycle of this medically important parasite centres on a complex freshwater biological community that includes two intermediate hosts: a mollusc and a decapod, usually a brachyuran. Although there is a perception that the biology, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment of Paragonimus is well understood, in reality, this is not the case, especially in Africa. Much remains unknown concerning the life-cycle of the parasite, its transmission, the current epidemiology of the disease, diagnosis and the effectiveness of treatment. Furthermore, cases of paragonimiasis may be misdiagnosed as resistant tuberculosis (TB) because of the similar pulmonary symptoms and no remission after anti TB therapy. The endemic foci of human paragonimiasis in Africa have been reported mainly in the forest zones of Upper Guinea (Liberia, Guinea and Ivory Coast) and Lower Guinea (Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon). Despite the perceived medical importance of paragonimiasis, relatively little attention has been paid to this NTD since its discovery in Africa in the 1960s. This review focuses on the current understanding of the life cycle and transmission of Paragonimus in Africa, discusses its diagnosis and public health importance and highlights many outstanding gaps in the knowledge that still exist for this NTD.

Influence of the bioturbator Upogebia cf. pusilla on trace metal remobilization: Does parasitism matter?

Marine sediments are an important source of contaminants since they are susceptible to be remobilized to the water column. By modifying the physical and biogeochemical characteristics of sediments, bioturbation can influence contaminants remobilization. Within bioturbators, mud shrimp are considered as among the most influential organisms in marine soft-bottom environments. The physiological state of mud shrimp can be impaired by bopyrid parasites. The present study aims to evaluate the influence of bopyrid-uninfested and bopyrid-infested mud shrimp on sediment contaminants resuspension. Through a 14-days ex-situ experiment we showed a moderate effect of mud shrimp on contaminant remobilization compared to molecular diffusion without the bioturbator. Conversely, parasite presence significantly impaired contaminant bioaccumulation in mud shrimp and interfered with genetic expression. The weak effect of mud shrimp on contaminant remobilization may be due to trace metal accumulation and thus we suggested to evaluate the influence of contaminants on activities of bioturbating species.

Hypolobocera guayaquilensis (Decapoda: Pseudothelphusidae): A New Crab Intermediate Host of Paragonimus mexicanus in Manabí Province, Ecuador.

To determine that Paragonimus sp. is actively transmitted in a tropical area of the Pacific region of Ecuador where human cases of pulmonary paragonimiasis have recently been documented, a total of 75 freshwater crabs were collected from 2 different streams in the Pedernales area of Manabí Province, Ecuador. All collected crabs were identified as Hypolobocera guayaquilensis based on morphological characteristics of the male gonopods. The hepatopancreas of each crab was examined by compressing it between 2 glass plates followed by observation under a stereomicroscope. Excysted Paragonimus metacercariae were detected in 39 (52.0%) crabs and their densities varied from 1 to 32 per infected crab. There was a positive relationship between crab size and metacercarial density. Sequences of the second internal transcribed spacer region of the ribosomal RNA gene of the Paragonimus metacercariae obtained in this study were identical to those of Paragonimus mexicanus deposited in the DDBJ/EMBL/GenBank database. Thus, the present study is the first to confirm that the crab species H. guayaquilensis is the second intermediate host of P. mexicanus in Manabí Province, Ecuador. Because this crab might be the possible source of human infections in this area, residents should pay attention to improper crab-eating habits related with a neglected parasitic disease, i.e., paragonimiasis.

A Microsporidian Infection in Phoronids (Phylum Phoronida): Microsporidium phoronidi n. sp. from a Phoronis embryolabi.

Microsporidia-like spores (2.0-3.0 × 1.3-1.5 µm) were discovered upon examination of histological sections taken from Phoronis embryolabi Temereva, Chichvarkhin 2017 found inhabiting burrows of shrimps Nihonotrypeae japonica (Decapoda, Callianassidae) from the Sea of Japan, Russia. Ultrastructural examination of spores revealed one nucleus and a uniform polar filament of 7-11 coils. Representatives of the phylum Phoronida have never been recorded as hosts of microsporidia. Parasites developed in vasoperitoneal tissue and caused formation of multinucleate syncytia. Basing on unique host and fine morphology, we assign the novel finding to Microsporidium phoronidi n. sp. and place provisionally in the collective genus Microsporidium.

Host Abundance, Sea-Grass Cover, and Temperature Predict Infection Rates of Parasitic Isopods (Bopyridae) on Caridean Shrimp.

Caridean shrimp are critical components of sea-grass communities and occasionally harbor parasitic bopyrid isopods, which can negatively impact their hosts. However, the ecological factors that drive infection rates of parasitic bopyrid isopods in host carideans are poorly known. We examined 43,875 carideans belonging to 6 families and 11 genera from 19 shallow-water localities throughout south Florida. Of these, only 114 shrimp (belonging to 5 genera) were found to be infested with bopyrids (an additional 251 had deformed carapaces consistent with recent infestation). We identified 13 bopyrid species ( Bopyrina abbreviata, Bopyrinella thorii, Eophrixus subcaudalis, Loki circumsaltanus, Metaphrixus carolii, Ovobopyrus alphezemiotes, Parabopyrella lata, Parabopyrella richardsonae, Parabopyriscus stellatus, Capitetragonia alphei, Probopyrus pandalicola, Schizobopyrina urocaridis, and an unidentified Diplophryxus sp.). Bopyrid infection rates were very low throughout the study area, with mean prevalence of 0.26% (range 0.04-1.48%). Furthermore, each isopod species was only ever recovered from a single host genus, suggesting a high degree of genus-level specificity. At the community level, multivariate analyses (RELATE and BVSTEP) indicated that bopyrid community composition was correlated with host community structure, latitude, and temperature, as well as the relative coverage of the sea grasses Thalassia sp. and Syringodium sp. and the alga Penicillus sp. Only 4 parasite taxa were sufficiently abundant to warrant further analysis at the individual taxon level: B. abbreviata, B. thorii, Diplophryxus sp., and P. pandalicola; stepwise regression indicated that bopyrid infection rates were primarily driven by the abundance of their specific hosts, and secondarily by environmental variables such as temperature and depth, as well as algal and sea-grass community composition.

Parasites (Isopoda: Epicaridea and Nematoda) from ghost and mud shrimp (Decapoda: Axiidea and Gebiidea) with descriptions of a new genus and a new species of bopyrid isopod and clarification of Pseudione Kossmann, 1881.

Ghost and mud shrimps in Axiidea and Gebiidea are hosts to parasitic epicaridean isopods, including species in Bopyridae and Ionidae. These isopods can reach high prevalence levels on their mud shrimp hosts and may strongly influence host ecology and biology. Currently, 54 species of bopyrids and eight species of ionids are known to parasitize ghost and mud shrimps. We present new taxonomic data on three species of ionids and ten species of bopyrids (nine previously described and one new to science), as well as on an undescribed species of nematode from an axiidean host. New locality and host records are given for all species. Our analysis of new material and review of museum specimens includes the description of the new species Acrobelione halimedae n. sp. from Austinogebia spinfrons (Haswell, 1881). We also provide an improved definition for the genus Pseudione Kossmann, 1881, based on morphological characters found in both sexes, and resolution of the type species, P. callianassae Kossmann, 1881. In our revision of Pseudione we erect a new genus, Robinione, and placed two species therein: R. overstreeti (Adkison Heard, 1995) and R. brattstroemi (Stuardo, Vega Cespedes, 1986). In addition, two other species are removed from Pseudione: P. compressa (Shiino, 1964) is moved to Ionella Bonnier, 1900, and P. panopei Pearse, 1947 is considered a synonym of Progebiophilus upogebiae (Hay, 1917). Bopyrid isopods represent a large, diverse taxon and our findings help clarify the taxonomy of those species found on ghost and mud shrimps.

Determining Intermediate Hosts for Opecoelidae and Microphallidae Species (Platyhelminthes: Trematoda) in the Southeastern Pacific Coast, Using Molecular Markers.

Metacercarial stages of digeneans were collected from decapod crustaceans inhabiting intertidal rocky zones in central Chile. The digeneans were identified through a molecular analysis based on the V4 region of the 18S ribosomal RNA gene. We analyzed 356 crustaceans belonging to 10 species, 115 intertidal fish belonging to 6 species, and 4 specimens of 1 coastal bird species. In total, 74.1% of crustaceans were parasitized with metacercariae. We found 1 species of Opecoelidae. This species showed low genetic divergence (0% and 0.1%) with adult digeneans found in intertidal fish and with the species Helicometrina labrisomi infesting a subtidal fish from northern Chile (Labrisomus philippii). Additionally, we found 2 species of Microphallidae, 1 closely related to Maritrema (1.3% genetic distance) and the other related to Microphallus (5% genetic distance). Therefore, our findings showed that the decapod crustaceans are relevant hosts in food webs from the southeastern Pacific coast. Furthermore, we found 5 species of crustaceans as second intermediate hosts for H. labrisomi and 2 species as secondary intermediate hosts for 2 Microphallidae, which contribute to elucidate parts of their life cycles through molecular markers and extended the host distribution of H. labrisomi in the southeastern Pacific coast.

Parasites in the fossil record: a Cretaceous fauna with isopod-infested decapod crustaceans, infestation patterns through time, and a new ichnotaxon.

Parasites are common in modern ecosystems and are also known from the fossil record. One of the best preserved and easily recognisable examples of parasitism in the fossil record concerns isopod-induced swellings in the branchial chamber of marine decapod crustaceans. However, very limited quantitative data on the variability of infestation percentages at the species, genus, and family levels are available. Here we provide this type of data for a mid-Cretaceous (upper Lower Cretaceous, upper Albian) reef setting at Koskobilo, northern Spain, on the basis of 874 specimens of anomurans and brachyurans. Thirty-seven specimens (4.2%), arranged in ten species, are infested. Anomurans are more heavily infested than brachyurans, variability can be high within genera, and a relationship may exist between the number of specimens and infestation percentage per taxon, possibly suggesting host-specificity. We have also investigated quantitative patterns of infestation through geological time based on 88 infested species (25 anomurans, 55 brachyurans, seven lobsters, and one shrimp), to show that the highest number of infested species can be found in the Late Jurassic, also when corrected for the unequal duration of epochs. The same Late Jurassic peak is observed for the percentage of infested decapod species per epoch. This acme is caused entirely by infested anomurans and brachyurans. Biases (taphonomic and otherwise) and causes of variability with regard to the Koskobilo assemblage and infestation patterns through time are discussed. Finally, a new ichnogenus and -species, Kanthyloma crusta, are erected to accommodate such swellings or embedment structures (bioclaustrations).

Paragonimiasis acquired in the United States: native and nonnative species.

Paragonimiasis is a parasitic lung infection caused by lung flukes of the genus Paragonimus, with most cases reported from Asia and caused by P. westermani following consumption of raw or undercooked crustaceans. With the exception of imported P. westermani cases in immigrants, in travelers returning from areas of disease endemicity, and in clusters of acquired cases following consumption of imported Asian crabs, human paragonimiasis caused by native lung flukes is rarely described in the United States, which has only one indigenous species of lung fluke, Paragonimus kellicotti. Clinicians should inquire about the consumption of raw or undercooked freshwater crabs by immigrants, expatriates, and returning travelers, and the consumption of raw or undercooked crayfish in U.S. freshwater river systems where P. kellicotti is endemic when evaluating patients presenting with unexplained fever, cough, rales, hemoptysis, pleural effusions, and peripheral eosinophilia. Diagnostic evaluation by specific parasitological, radiological, serological, and molecular methods will be required in order to differentiate paragonimiasis from tuberculosis, which is not uncommon in recent Asian immigrants. All cases of imported and locally acquired paragonimiasis will require treatment with oral praziquantel to avoid any potential pulmonary and cerebral complications of paragonimiasis, some of which may require surgical interventions.

A new genus and species of parasitic isopod (Isopoda: Bopyridae: Orbioninae) from Chinese waters, with a new locality and host record for Orbione halipori Nierstrasz & Brender à Brandis, 1923.

Parasymmetrorbione bicauda n. g., n. sp. is described from Chinese waters infesting two species of Solenocera Lucas (Decapoda: Penaeoidea). The new genus differs from other orbionine genera by the following combination of features: a pronounced asymmetry of coxal and lateral plate development, biramous uropods, tuberculate lateral plates and a digitate internal ridge on oostegite 1. A key to the eight genera of the Orbioninae R. Codreanu, 1967 is presented. Orbione halipori Nierstrasz & Brender à Brandis, 1923 is also recorded from a new Chinese locality and a new host.

A new microsporidium, Triwangia caridinae gen. nov., sp. nov. parasitizing fresh water shrimp, Caridina formosae (Decapoda: Atyidae) in Taiwan.

A new microsporidium was isolated from the endemic, Taiwanese shrimp, Caridina formosae (Decapoda, Atyidae) from northern Taiwan. A conspicuous symptom of infection was presence of opaque white xenomas located in the proximity of the alimentary tract, the surface of the hepatopancreas, and the gills. A fully developed xenoma consisted of a hard, thick capsule filled with sporophorous vesicles containing multiple spores. Microsporidia developed synchronously within the same sporophorous vesicle, although the stage of parasite development differed among the vesicles. Fresh spores were pyriform, mononucleated and measured 6.53 × 4.38 µm. The polar filament was anisofilar with 9-11 coils. Phylogenetic analysis based on the small subunit ribosomal DNA sequence showed that the isolate is most similar to the fish microsporidian clade containing the genera Kabatana, Microgemma, Potaspora, Spraguea, and Teramicra. The highest sequence identity, 80%, was with Spraguea spp. Based on pathogenesis, life cycle and phylogenetic analysis, we erect a new genus and species, Triwangia caridinae for the novel microsporidium.

[A new species of the genus Nanhaipotamon (Decapoda:Potamidae) serving as intermediate host of Paragonimus skrjabini].

OBJECTIVE: To describe a new species of the genus Nanhaipotamon. METHODS: Freshwater crabs were collected in the counties of Yongtai, Minqing, Youxi, Songxi, Zhenghe and Shouning, Fujian Province. The morphological characteristics of the crabs were described. The habitats were observed and crabs examined for the presence of Paragonimus metacerariae. RESULTS: A new species of freshwater crabs named as Nanhaipotamon fujianense sp. nov. was described: holotype (FJ6132-1): male, carapace length 18.44 mm, breadth 23.64 mm, thickness 12.61 mm; allotype (FJ6132-2): female, length 18.76 mm, breadth 25.25 mm, thicknes 14.31 mm, collected from Yongtai County in the middle of Fujian (N 25 degrees 44,778'; E118 degrees 32,278', and 232 m above sea lever). Distal segment of the first male pleopod with triangle convex inner-distal angle, and the axe-like expanded out-distal angle. The out-lateral border slightly sloped downwards. The segment length is 2.1 times as long as the subdistal segment. The crabs usually lived in the crevice of small stream. Paragonimus metacerariae were found in the crabs collected from Yongtai, Minqing, Youxi, Songxi and Zhenghe Counties. CONCLUSION: A new species of freshwater crab (Nanhaipotamon fujianense sp. nov.) has been recorded which serves as the intermediate hosts of Paragonimus skrjabini.

The scope of the crustacean immune system for disease control.

The culture or wild capture of marine and freshwater shellfish, including crustaceans, is without doubt a key source of protein for a burgeoning world population. Historically the expansion of aquaculture has, however, been accompanied by the increased incidence of economically significant diseases, most notably of viral and bacterial origin. Since the late 1970s great progress has been made in our understanding of the generalized protostome innate immune system. Distinct pathways, pathogen receptor proteins and effector molecules have since been identified that are not ancestral or homologous to those of the deuterostomes, including vertebrates. Within the past decade progress has accelerated with the rapid characterisation of new classes of recognition proteins, immune effectors and regulatory pathways. This paper provides a broad overview of our current understanding of invertebrate immunology, taking the crustacean decapod immune system as its focus. Recent developments in the field are described briefly and their implications and potential considered. These advances offer fundamental new insights in our efforts to understand disease in cultured populations and also to develop knowledge of environmental effects on host/pathogen interactions within a fishery context. Of course, challenges do remain, including the lack of an immortal cell line and the limited publically-available genomic resources. These are considered in this review as priorities for future research effort. With the continued application of more insightful technologies, coupled with associated investment, it is expected that the speed at which some of these issues are resolved will accelerate.