Hyperkinetic and Hypokinetic Movement Disorders in SSPE: A Systematic Review of Case Reports and Case Series.

Background: Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis (SSPE) typically presents with periodic myoclonus; however, a spectrum of movement disorders including dystonia, chorea, tremor, and parkinsonism have also been described. This review aims to evaluate the array of movement disorders in SSPE, correlating them with neuroimaging findings, disease stages, and patient outcomes. Methods: A comprehensive review of published case reports and case series was conducted on patients with SSPE exhibiting movement disorders other than periodic myoclonus. PRISMA guidelines were followed, and the protocol was registered with PROSPERO (2023 CRD42023434650). A comprehensive search of multiple databases yielded 37 reports detailing 39 patients. Dyken's criteria were used for SSPE diagnosis, and the International Movement Disorders Society definitions were applied to categorize movement disorders. Results: The majority of patients were male, with an average age of 13.8 years. Approximately, 80% lacked a reliable vaccination history, and 39% had prior measles infections. Dystonia was the most common movement disorder (49%), followed by parkinsonism and choreoathetosis. Rapid disease progression was noted in 64% of cases, with a disease duration of ≤6 months in 72%. Neuroimaging showed T2/FLAIR MR hyperintensities, primarily periventricular, with 26% affecting the basal ganglia/thalamus. Brain biopsies revealed inflammatory and neurodegenerative changes. Over half of the patients (56%) reached an akinetic mute state or died. Conclusion: SSPE is associated with diverse movement disorders, predominantly hyperkinetic. The prevalence of dystonia suggests basal ganglia dysfunction.

Parkinsonism originates in a discrete secondary and dystonia in a primary motor cortical-basal ganglia subcircuit.

Although manifesting contrasting phenotypes, Parkinson's disease and dystonia, the two most common movement disorders, can originate from similar pathophysiology. Previously, we demonstrated that lesioning (silencing) of a discrete dorsal region in the globus pallidus (rodent equivalent to globus pallidus externa) in rats and produced parkinsonism, while lesioning a nearby ventral hotspot-induced dystonia. Presently, we injected fluorescent-tagged multi-synaptic tracers into these pallidal hotspots (n = 36 Long Evans rats) and permitted 4 days for the viruses to travel along restricted connecting pathways and reach the motor cortex before sacrificing the animals. Viral injections in the Parkinson's hotspot fluorescent labeled a circumscribed region in the secondary motor cortex, while injections in the dystonia hotspot labeled within the primary motor cortex. Custom probability mapping and N200 staining affirmed the segregation of the cortical territories for Parkinsonism and dystonia to the secondary and primary motor cortices. Intracortical microstimulation localized territories specifically to their respective rostral and caudal microexcitable zones. Parkinsonian features are thus explained by pathological signaling within a secondary motor subcircuit normally responsible for initiation and scaling of movement, while dystonia is explained by abnormal (and excessive) basal ganglia signaling directed at primary motor corticospinal transmission.

Posterior Interosseous Neuropathy with Peripheral Dystonia: A Case Report.

Background: Posterior interosseous neuropathy is an uncommon cause of peripheral dystonia. Case Report: A 62-year-old man awakened and noticed right finger drop. A neurological examination revealed posterior interosseous neuropathy with dystonia-like finger movements. Abnormal movements were predominantly observed in the right thumb, ring finger, and little finger. Within 2 weeks, the muscle weakness in the right fingers had completely improved. However, a brief abnormal posture of the right thumb was persistent. Discussion: The residual abnormal posture of the right thumb may reflect pre-existing motor control abnormalities, which may have contributed to the onset of posterior interosseous neuropathy-associated peripheral dystonia.

Striatal parvalbumin interneurons are activated in a mouse model of cerebellar dystonia.

Dystonia is thought to arise from abnormalities in the motor loop of the basal ganglia; however, there is an ongoing debate regarding cerebellar involvement. We adopted an established cerebellar dystonia mouse model by injecting ouabain to examine the contribution of the cerebellum. Initially, we examined whether the entopeduncular nucleus (EPN), substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr), globus pallidus externus (GPe) and striatal neurons were activated in the model. Next, we examined whether administration of a dopamine D1 receptor agonist and dopamine D2 receptor antagonist or selective ablation of striatal parvalbumin (PV, encoded by Pvalb)-expressing interneurons could modulate the involuntary movements of the mice. The cerebellar dystonia mice had a higher number of cells positive for c-fos (encoded by Fos) in the EPN, SNr and GPe, as well as a higher positive ratio of c-fos in striatal PV interneurons, than those in control mice. Furthermore, systemic administration of combined D1 receptor agonist and D2 receptor antagonist and selective ablation of striatal PV interneurons relieved the involuntary movements of the mice. Abnormalities in the motor loop of the basal ganglia could be crucially involved in cerebellar dystonia, and modulating PV interneurons might provide a novel treatment strategy.

Prefrontal-subthalamic theta signaling mediates delayed responses during conflict processing.

While medial frontal cortex (MFC) and subthalamic nucleus (STN) have been implicated in conflict monitoring and action inhibition, respectively, an integrated understanding of the spatiotemporal and spectral interaction of these nodes and how they interact with motor cortex (M1) to definitively modify motor behavior during conflict is lacking. We recorded neural signals intracranially across presupplementary motor area (preSMA), M1, STN, and globus pallidus internus (GPi), during a flanker task in 20 patients undergoing deep brain stimulation implantation surgery for Parkinson disease or dystonia. Conflict is associated with sequential and causal increases in local theta power from preSMA to STN to M1 with movement delays directly correlated with increased STN theta power, indicating preSMA is the MFC locus that monitors conflict and signals STN to implement a 'break.' Transmission of theta from STN-to-M1 subsequently results in a transient increase in M1-to-GPi beta flow immediately prior to movement, modulating the motor network to actuate the conflict-related action inhibition (i.e., delayed response). Action regulation during conflict relies on two distinct circuits, the conflict-related theta and movement-related beta networks, that are separated spatially, spectrally, and temporally, but which interact dynamically to mediate motor performance, highlighting complex parallel yet interacting networks regulating movement.

Interdisciplinary insights into tremor in dystonia: Navigating clinical controversies, definitional challenges, and pathophysiological complexities.

This review delves into the historical evolution and ongoing controversy surrounding the relationship between tremor and dystonia. The Dystonia Consensus Panel and the International Parkinson's and Movement Disorders Society's Tremor Taskforce have attempted to define these entities, but the complexity arises when patients have a combination of both dystonia and tremor. The term "dystonic tremor" has sparked diverse interpretations, with debates over its clinical features and the need for more objectively defined characteristics. Logistic regression analyses in a large cohort of dystonia patients identified determinants such as body region affected by dystonia, dystonia severity, age, and recruitment site, with unexpected associations emphasizing the subjectivity in detecting and classifying tremor. The study further discovered diverse prevalence of "dystonic tremor" based on different definitions, revealing substantial variability among investigators. The recently convened Dystonia-Tremor panel aimed to address these challenges by proposing a more uniform nomenclature, emphasizing precise and descriptive terms. Despite the complexity, instrumented measures, such as electromyography, temporal discrimination threshold, blink reflex, and trajectory shape analysis, seem to be useful in distinguishing between tremor and dystonia. The pathophysiology debate centers around the involvement of the cerebello-thalamo-cortical and basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical circuits. Evidence supports the role of both circuits in driving the pathophysiology of dystonic tremor, challenging the notion of a clear dichotomy. The review concludes by emphasizing the need for a nuanced understanding, highlighting the intricate interplay between tremor and dystonia, and the potential of instrumental measures in advancing diagnostic accuracy.

CHD8-related disorders redefined: an expanding spectrum of dystonic phenotypes.

BACKGROUND: Heterozygous loss-of-function variants in CHD8 have been associated with a syndromic neurodevelopmental-disease spectrum, collectively referred to as CHD8-related neurodevelopmental disorders. Several different clinical manifestations, affecting neurodevelopmental and systemic domains, have been described, presenting with highly variable expressivity. Some expressions are well established and comprise autism spectrum disorders, psychomotor delay with cognitive impairment, postnatal overgrowth with macrocephaly, structural brain abnormalities, gastrointestinal disturbances, and behavioral and sleep-pattern problems. However, the complete phenotypic spectrum of CHD8-related disorders is still undefined. In 2021, our group described two singular female patients with CHD8-related neurodevelopmental disorder and striking dystonic manifestations, prompting the suggestion that dystonia should be considered a possible component of this condition. CASE SERIES PRESENTATION: We describe three additional unrelated female individuals, each carrying a different CHD8 frameshift variant and whose clinical presentations were primarily characterized by young-onset dystonia. Their dystonic manifestations were remarkably heterogeneous and ranged from focal, exercise-dependent, apparently isolated forms to generalized permanent phenotypes accompanied by spasticity and tremor. Neurocognitive impairment and autistic behaviors, typical of CHD8-related disorders, were virtually absent or at the mild end of the spectrum. CONCLUSIONS: This work validates our previous observation that dystonia is part of the phenotypic spectrum of CHD8-related neurodevelopmental disorders with potential female preponderance, raising new challenges and opportunities in the diagnosis and management of this condition. It also highlights the importance of in-depth neurologic phenotyping of patients carrying variants associated with neurodevelopmental disorders, as the connection between neurodevelopmental and movement disorders is proving closer than previously appreciated.

Pallidal multifractal complexity is a new potential physiomarker of dystonia.

OBJECTIVE: Low-frequency 4-12 Hz pallidal oscillations are being considered as potential physiomarkers for dystonia. We suggest investigating the multifractal properties of pallidal activity as an additional marker. METHODS: We employed local field potentials (LFP) recordings from 23 patients with dystonia who were undergoing deep brain stimulation (DBS) surgery to explore the connection between disease severity and the multifractal characteristics of pallidal activity. Furthermore, we performed an analysis of LFP recordings from four patients, following the externalization of DBS lead electrodes, to investigate the impact of DBS and neck muscle vibration on multifractal parameters. RESULTS: Greater dystonia severity exhibited a correlation with a narrower multifractal spectrum width but higher multifractal spectral asymmetry. Both GPi DBS and muscle vibration in dystonia patients expanded the multifractal spectrum width while restoring multifractal spectral symmetry. Notably, the threshold peak intensities for an increase in multifractal spectrum width substantially overlapped with the optimal volume of tissue activated. A broader multifractal spectrum during DBS corresponded to more favorable clinical outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Multifractal properties of pallidal neuronal activity serve as indicators of neural dysfunction in dystonia. SIGNIFICANCE: These findings suggest the potential of utilizing multifractal characteristics as predictive factors for the DBS outcome in dystonia.

Clinical features and power spectral entropy of electroencephalography in Wilson's disease with dystonia.

OBJECTIVE: To study the clinical features and power spectral entropy (PSE) of electroencephalography signals in Wilson's disease (WD) patients with dystonia. METHODS: Several scale evaluations were performed to assess the clinical features of WD patients. Demographic information and electroencephalography signals were obtained in all subjects. RESULTS: 34 WD patients with dystonia were recruited in the case group and 24 patients without dystonia were recruited in the control group. 20 healthy individuals were included in the healthy control group. The mean body mass index (BMI) in the case group was significantly lower than that in the controls (p < .05). The case group had significantly higher SAS, SDS, and Bucco-Facial-Apraxia Assessment scores (p < .05). Total BADS scores in the case group were lower than those in the control group (p < .01). Note that 94.11% of the case group presented with dysarthria and 70.59% of them suffered from dysphagia. Dysphagia was mainly related to the oral preparatory stage and oral stage. Mean power spectral entropy (PSE) values in the case group were significantly different (p < .05) from those in the control group and the healthy group across the different tasks. CONCLUSIONS: The patients with dystonia were usually accompanied with low BMI, anxiety, depression, apraxia, executive dysfunction, dysarthria and dysphagia. The cortical activities of the WD patients with dystonia seemed to be more chaotic during the eyes-closed and reading tasks but lower during the swallowing stages than those in the control group.

Pathophysiological mechanisms of oromandibular dystonia.

Oromandibular dystonia (OMD) is a rare form of focal idiopathic dystonia. OMD was clinically identified at the beginning of the 20th century, and the main clinical features have been progressively described over the years. However, OMD has several peculiarities that still remain unexplained, including the high rate of oral trauma, which is often related to the onset of motor symptoms. The purpose of this paper was to formulate a hypothesis regarding the pathophysiology of OMD, starting from the neuroanatomical basis of the masticatory and facial systems and highlighting the features that differentiate this condition from other forms of focal idiopathic dystonia. We provide a brief review of the clinical and etiological features of OMD as well as neurophysiological and neuroimaging findings obtained from studies in patients with OMD. We discuss possible pathophysiological mechanisms underlying OMD and suggest that abnormalities in sensory input processing may play a prominent role in OMD pathophysiology, possibly triggering a cascade of events that results in sensorimotor cortex network dysfunction. Finally, we identify open questions that future studies should address, including the effect of abnormal sensory input processing and oral trauma on the peculiar neurophysiological abnormalities observed in OMD.

Spasticity and Dystonia are Underidentified in Young Children at High Risk for Cerebral Palsy.

BACKGROUND: Early spasticity and dystonia identification in cerebral palsy is critical for guiding diagnostic workup and prompting targeted treatment early when it is most efficacious. However, differentiating spasticity from dystonia is difficult in young children with cerebral palsy. METHODS: We sought to determine spasticity and dystonia underidentification rates in children at high risk for cerebral palsy (following neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy) by assessing how often child neurologists identified hypertonia alone versus specifying the hypertonia type as spasticity and/or dystonia by age 5 years. RESULTS: Of 168 children, 63 developed cerebral palsy and hypertonia but only 19 (30%) had their hypertonia type specified as spasticity and/or dystonia by age 5 years. CONCLUSIONS: Child neurologists did not specify the type of hypertonia in a majority of children at high risk of cerebral palsy. Because early tone identification critically guides diagnostic workup and treatment of cerebral palsy, these results highlight an important gap in current cerebral palsy care.

Comparison of cognitive performance between patients with Parkinson's disease and dystonia using an intraoperative recognition memory test.

Neuroscientific studies on the function of the basal ganglia often examine the behavioral performance of patients with movement disorders, such as Parkinson's disease (PD) and dystonia (DT), while simultaneously examining the underlying electrophysiological activity during deep brain stimulation surgery. Nevertheless, to date, there have been no studies comparing the cognitive performance of PD and DT patients during surgery. In this study, we assessed the memory function of PD and DT patients with the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). We also tested their cognitive performance during the surgery using a continuous recognition memory test. The results of the MoCA and MMSE failed to reveal significant differences between the PD and DT patients. Additionally, no significant difference was detected by the intraoperative memory test between the PD and DT patients. The intraoperative memory test scores were highly correlated with the MMSE scores and MoCA scores. Our data suggest that DT patients perform similarly to PD patients in cognitive tests during surgery, and intraoperative memory tests can be used as a quick memory assessment tool during surgery.

Sex related differences in nonmotor symptoms of patients with idiopathic blepharospasm.

Idiopathic blepharospasm shows a female predominance in prevalence, whether there are sex-related differences in distributions of nonmotor symptoms (NMSs) and predictors of quality of life are unknown. Four hundred and twenty-five patients with idiopathic blepharospasm were consecutively recruited, and underwent assessments including dystonia severity, mood disturbances, sleep disturbances, cognition, ocular symptoms, and quality of life. Frequencies and distributions of NMSs, and predictors of quality of life in female and male patients were investigated. NMSs existed in majority of male (94.0%) and female (95.8%) patients. The frequencies of depression, cognition dysfunction, and poor sleep quality were higher in female patients, while the frequency of excessive daytime sleepiness was higher in male patients. More female (79.5%) patients had multiple NMS domains affected than male (70.1%) patients (p = 0.040). Quality of life was associated with depression, anxiety and motor severity for female patients (adjusted R2 = 0.367, p < 0.001), while associated with depression, excessive daytime sleepiness and motor severity for male patients (adjusted R2 = 0.430, p < 0.001). The highly prevalent coexistence of multiple NMSs found in patients with blepharospasm support that blepharospasm is a network disorder. The sex-related differences in the pattern of NMSs and predictors of quality of life may aid the development of tailored management of blepharospasm.

Gut Microbiome and Serum Metabolome Alterations Associated with Isolated Dystonia.

Dystonia is a complex neurological movement disorder characterized by involuntary muscle contractions. Increasing studies implicate the microbiome as a possible key susceptibility factor for neurological disorders, but the relationship between the gut microbiota and dystonia remains poorly explored. Here, the gut microbiota of 57 patients with isolated dystonia and 27 age- and environment-matched healthy controls was analyzed by 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. Further, integrative analysis of the gut microbiome and serum metabolome measured by high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry was performed. No difference in α-diversity was found, while ß-diversity was significantly different, with a more heterogeneous community structure among dystonia patients than among controls. The most significant changes in dystonia highlighted an increase in Clostridiales, including Blautia obeum, Dorea longicatena, and Eubacterium hallii, and a reduction in Bacteroides vulgatus and Bacteroides plebeius. The functional analysis revealed that genes related to tryptophan and purine biosynthesis were more abundant in gut microbiota from patients with dystonia, while genes linked to citrate cycle, vitamin B6, and glycan metabolism were less abundant. The evaluation of serum metabolites revealed altered levels of l-glutamic acid, taurine, and d-tyrosine, suggesting changes in neurotransmitter metabolism. The most modified metabolites strongly inversely correlated with the abundance of members belonging to the Clostridiales, revealing the effect of the gut microbiota on neurometabolic activity. This study is the first to reveal gut microbial dysbiosis in patients with isolated dystonia and identified potential links between gut microbiota and serum neurotransmitters, providing new insight into the pathogenesis of isolated dystonia. IMPORTANCE Dystonia is the third most common movement disorder after essential tremor and Parkinson's disease. However, the cause for the majority of cases is not known. This is the first study so far that reveals significant alterations of gut microbiome and correlates the alteration of serum metabolites with gut dysbiosis in patients with isolated dystonia. We demonstrated a general overrepresentation of Clostridiales and underrepresentation of Bacteroidetes in patients with dystonia in comparison with healthy controls. The functional analysis found that genes related to the biosynthesis of tryptophan, which is the precursor of the neurotransmitter serotonin, were more active in isolated dystonia patients. Altered levels of several serum metabolites were found to be associated with microbial changes, such as d-tyrosine, taurine, and glutamate, indicating differences in neurotransmitter metabolism in isolated dystonia. Integrative analysis suggests that neurotransmitter system dysfunction may be a possible pathway by which the gut microbiome participates in the development of dystonia. The gut microbiome changes provide new insight into the pathogenesis of dystonia, suggesting new potential therapeutic directions.

Inhibition of endoplasmic reticulum stress reverses synaptic plasticity deficits in striatum of DYT1 dystonia mice.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Striatal plasticity alterations caused by endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is supposed to be critically involved in the mechanism of DYT1 dystonia. In the current study, we expanded this research field by investigating the critical role of ER stress underlying synaptic plasticity impairment imposed by mutant heterozygous Tor1a+/- in a DYT1 dystonia mouse model. METHODS: Heterozygous Tor1a+/- mouse model for DYT1 dystonia was established. Wild-type (Tor1a+/+, N=10) and mutant (Tor1a+/-, N=10) mice from post-natal day P25 to P35 were randomly distributed to experimental and control groups. Patch-clamp and current-clamp recordings of SPNs were conducted with intracellular electrodes for electrophysiological analyses. Striatal changes of the direct and indirect pathways were investigated via immunofluorescence. Golgi-Cox staining was conducted to observe spine morphology of SPNs. To quantify postsynaptic signaling proteins in striatum, RNA-Seq, qRT-PCR and WB were performed in striatal tissues. RESULTS: Long-term depression (LTD) was failed to be induced, while long-term potentiation (LTP) was further strengthened in striatal spiny projection neurons (SPNs) from the Tor1a+/- DYT1 dystonia mice. Spine morphology analyses revealed a significant increase of both number of mushroom type spines and spine width in Tor1a+/- SPNs. In addition, increased AMPA receptor function and the reduction of NMDA/AMPA ratio in the postsynaptic of Tor1a+/- SPNs was observed, along with increased ER stress protein levels in striatum of Tor1a+/- DYT1 dystonia mice. Notably, ER stress inhibitors, tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA), could rescue LTD as well as AMPA currents. CONCLUSION: The current study illustrated the role of ER stress in mediating structural and functional plasticity alterations in Tor1a+/- SPNs. Inhibition of the ER stress by TUDCA is beneficial in reversing the deficits at the cellular and molecular levels. Remedy of dystonia associated neurological and motor functional impairment by ER stress inhibitors could be a recommendable therapeutic agent in clinical practice.

Combined treatment with C16 peptide and angiopoietin-1 confers neuroprotection and reduces inflammation in 3-nitropropionic acid-induced dystonia mice.

Dystonia is a disorder associated with abnormalities in many brain regions including the basal ganglia and cerebellum. The toxin 3-Nitropropionic acid (3-NP) can induce neuropathologies in the mice striatum and nigra substance, including excitotoxicity, neuroinflammation, and extensive neuronal atrophy, characterized by progressive motor dysfunction, dystonia, and memory loss, mimicking those observed in humans. We established a mouse model of dystonia by administering 3-NP. Given the reported neuroprotective effects of the endothelial growth factor angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1) and the anti-inflammatory integrin αvß3 binding peptide C16, we performed this study to evaluate their combined effects on 3-NP striatal toxicity and their therapeutic potential with multiple methods using an in vivo mouse model. Sixty mice were equally and randomly divided into three groups: control, 3-NP treatment, and 3-NP+C16+Ang-1 treatment. Behavioral and electrophysiological tests were conducted and the effect of the combined C16+Ang-1 treatment on neural function recovery was determined. We found that C16+Ang-1 treatment alleviated 3-NP-induced behavioral, biochemical, and cellular alterations in the central nervous system and promoted function recovery by restoring vascular permeability and reducing inflammation in the micro-environment. In conclusion, our results confirmed the neuroprotective effect of combined C16+Ang-1 treatment and suggest their potential as a complementary therapeutic against 3-NP-induced dystonia.

DNAJC6 mutation causing cranial-onset dystonia with tremor dominant levodopa non-responsive parkinsonism: A novel phenotype.

DNAJC6 mutation causes two types of phenotypes: slowly progressive parkinsonism with levodopa response and rapidly progressive parkinsonism with additional manifestations like intellectual disability, epilepsy etc. We report a new phenotype wherein an adolescent girl developed blepharospasm followed by jaw opening, lingual and cervical dystonia followed by tremors of limbs (rest and action) with rigidity, bradykinesia. The dystonia-parkinsonism phenotype has not been described. She had novel homozygous missense mutation in DNAJC6 gene.

Functional dystonia in the foot and ankle.

AIMS: To assess the characteristic clinical features, management, and outcome of patients who present to orthopaedic surgeons with functional dystonia affecting the foot and ankle. METHODS: We carried out a retrospective search of our records from 2000 to 2019 of patients seen in our adult tertiary referral foot and ankle unit with a diagnosis of functional dystonia. RESULTS: A total of 29 patients were seen. A majority were female (n = 25) and the mean age of onset of symptoms was 35.3 years (13 to 71). The mean delay between onset and diagnosis was 7.1 years (0.5 to 25.0). Onset was acute in 25 patients and insidious in four. Of the 29 patients, 26 had a fixed dystonia and three had a spasmodic dystonia. Pain was a major symptom in all patients, with a coexisting diagnosis of chronic regional pain syndrome (CRPS) made in nine patients. Of 20 patients treated with Botox, only one had a good response. None of the 12 patients who underwent a surgical intervention at our unit or elsewhere reported a subjective overall improvement. After a mean follow-up of 3.2 years (1 to 12), four patients had improved, 17 had remained the same, and eight reported a deterioration in their condition. CONCLUSION: Patients with functional dystonia typically presented with a rapid onset of fixed deformity after a minor injury/event and pain out of proportion to the deformity. Referral to a neurologist to rule out neurological pathology is advocated, and further management should be carried out in a movement disorder clinic. Response to treatment (including Botulinum toxin (Botox) injections) is generally poor. Surgery in this group of patients is not recommended and may worsen the condition. The overall prognosis remains poor. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2021;103-B(6):1127-1132.

Distinct patterns of dyskinetic and dystonic features following D1 or D2 receptor stimulation in a mouse model of parkinsonism.

L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia (LID) is a significant complication of dopamine replacement therapy in Parkinson's disease (PD), and the specific role of different dopamine receptors in this disorder is poorly understood. We set out to compare patterns of dyskinetic behaviours induced by the systemic administration of L-DOPA and D1 or D2 receptor (D1R, D2R) agonists in mice with unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesions. Mice were divided in four groups to receive increasing doses of L-DOPA, a D1R agonist (SKF38393), a D2/3 agonist (quinpirole), or a selective D2R agonist (sumanirole). Axial, limb and orofacial abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs) were rated using a well-established method, while dystonic features were quantified in different body segments using a new rating scale. Measures of abnormal limb and trunk posturing were extracted from high-speed videos using a software for markerless pose estimation (DeepLabCut). While L-DOPA induced the full spectrum of dyskinesias already described in this mouse model, SKF38393 induced mostly orofacial and limb AIMs. By contrast, both of the D2-class agonists (quinpirole, sumanirole) induced predominantly axial AIMs. Dystonia ratings revealed that these agonists elicited marked dystonic features in trunk/neck, forelimbs, and hindlimbs, which were overall more severe in sumanirole-treated mice. Accordingly, sumanirole induced pronounced axial bending and hindlimb divergence in the automated video analysis. In animals treated with SKF38393, the only appreciable dystonic-like reaction consisted in sustained tail dorsiflexion and stiffness. We next compared the effects of D1R or D2R selective antagonists in L-DOPA-treated mice, where only the D2R antagonist had a significant effect on dystonic features. Taken together these results indicate that the dystonic components of LID are predominantly mediated by the D2R.