Desafios do processo gestacional de mulheres negras: uma revisão narrativa / Challenges in the gestational process of black women: hia narrative review

Esta revisão narrativa procura discutir aspectos concernentes ao processo gestacional de mulheres negras, quais sejam: se existem diferenças de tratamento entre mulheres brancas e negras durante a gravidez e nos momentos do parto e pós-parto, como essas diferenças são influenciadas pelos aspectos fisiológicos de cada grupo étnico e como isso afeta as taxas de morbimortalidade. Para esta revisão, quatro bases de dados foram usadas (SciELO, LILACS, PubMed e MEDLINE) e 23 artigos foram lidos na íntegra, depois de selecionados por data de publicação, língua, país da pesquisa e análise dos títulos e resumos. Como principais resultados, os autores encontraram diferenças claras entre mulheres brancas e negras quanto ao acesso à saúde, sendo as negras mais propensas a usar os sistemas públicos e ter menos consultas pré-natal. Também foi observado que as mulheres negras reportaram maus-tratos mais vezes, tinham maiores chances de serem proibidas de ter um acompanhante durante o parto e recebiam menos anestesia para episiotomias. As características fisiológicas também foram apontadas várias vezes. Nesse sentido, altas taxas de anemia ferropriva e hipertensão durante a gravidez foram mais comuns entre as negras. Além disso, em se tratando de taxas de morbimortalidade, mulheres negras tinham uma chance consideravelmente maior de serem readmitidas pós-parto e maiores taxas de mortalidade, quando comparadas com mulheres brancas.(AU)

This review aims to discuss aspects related to the gestational process of black women, namely: if there is a difference in how black and white women are treated throughout pregnancy, partum and postpartum moments, how this difference is influenced by the physiological aspects of each ethnical group and how it affects their morbidity and mortality rates. For this review, four databases were used (SciELO, LILACS, PubMed and MEDLINE) and 23 articles were fully read, after being selected by publishing date, language, country of research, title and abstract analysis. The authors found as the main results clear differences between black women's and white women's access to health care, as black women are more likely to use public health care systems and have fewer prenatal appointments. It was also noticed that black women reported maltreatment more frequently, had a higher chance of being prohibited from keeping a companion during labor and suffering from less local anesthesia for episiotomy. The physiological characteristics were also pointed out several times, with high rates of iron deficiency anemia and hypertension during pregnancy being more common among black women. Moreover, when it comes to morbidity and mortality rates, black women had an extremely higher chance of being readmitted postpartum, and a higher mortality rate, when compared to white women.(AU)

The neural mechanisms of threat and reconciliation efforts between Muslims and non-Muslims.

To reduce the escalation of intergroup conflict, it is important that we understand the processes related to the detection of group-based threat and reconciliation. In the present study, we investigated the neural mechanisms of such processes using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). Functional neuroimaging techniques may shed light on quick, automatic responses to stimuli that happen outside of conscious awareness and are thus increasingly difficult to quantify relying only on participants' self-reported experiences. They may further provide invaluable insight into physiological processes occurring in situations of sensitive nature, whereby participants-deliberately or not-may withhold their honest responses due to social desirability. Non-Muslim Western Caucasian participants watched short video clips of stereotypical Middle-Eastern Muslim males threatening their ingroup, offering reconciliation to the ingroup, or making a neutral statement. Threatening statements led to increased activation in the amygdala, insula, supramarginal gyrus, and temporal lobe. Reconciliation efforts led to increased activation in the prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate gyrus, and caudate. The results suggest that threat detection is a relatively automatic process while evaluating and responding to reconciliation offers requires more cognitive efforts. The implications of these findings and future research directions are discussed.

Violence against indigenous children and adolescents in Venezuela.

Research on violence in indigenous communities refers to traditional practices of competition for scarce goods and clashes with other populations over their territories. Violence against children is not described, and authors of some studies state a tradition of good treatment towards them. In our study we shows that the situation has changed and new forms of violence are affecting 725,000 inhabitants from 51 indigenous groups of Venezuela, especially those composed of children and adolescents. The method used was interviews with key informants and for secondary census, civil society data and journalists' reports. Results describe the existence of four types of violence: (a) structural violence, derived from the shortage of food and medicines that have caused deaths due to malnutrition and lack of medical attention, prostitution, girl trafficking and forced emigration; (b) violence of organized crime, which exercise control of illegal mining and affect the Yanomami and Pemón peoples, as workforce for the production of coca and drug trafficking with the Yupka people; and contraband of gasoline in the Wayúu people; (c) domestic violence due to cultural changes derived from new patterns of alcohol consumption or the use of physical punishment of children between Piaroa and Yekuana peoples; and (d) the illegal violence of the State for the imposition of mining with the Pemón people or the repression for the protests with the Warao and Inga peoples. In the article we show the great difference between the official discourse of protection of indigenous peoples and the realities of violence, criminal exploitation and violation of rights suffered by indigenous children and adolescents.

Violence against indigenous children and adolescents in Venezuela / Violencia contra niños y adolescentes indígenas en Venezuela / Violência contra crianças e adolescentes indígenas na Venezuela

Abstract: Research on violence in indigenous communities refers to traditional practices of competition for scarce goods and clashes with other populations over their territories. Violence against children is not described, and authors of some studies state a tradition of good treatment towards them. In our study we shows that the situation has changed and new forms of violence are affecting 725,000 inhabitants from 51 indigenous groups of Venezuela, especially those composed of children and adolescents. The method used was interviews with key informants and for secondary census, civil society data and journalists' reports. Results describe the existence of four types of violence: (a) structural violence, derived from the shortage of food and medicines that have caused deaths due to malnutrition and lack of medical attention, prostitution, girl trafficking and forced emigration; (b) violence of organized crime, which exercise control of illegal mining and affect the Yanomami and Pemón peoples, as workforce for the production of coca and drug trafficking with the Yupka people; and contraband of gasoline in the Wayúu people; (c) domestic violence due to cultural changes derived from new patterns of alcohol consumption or the use of physical punishment of children between Piaroa and Yekuana peoples; and (d) the illegal violence of the State for the imposition of mining with the Pemón people or the repression for the protests with the Warao and Inga peoples. In the article we show the great difference between the official discourse of protection of indigenous peoples and the realities of violence, criminal exploitation and violation of rights suffered by indigenous children and adolescents.

Resumen: La investigación sobre la violencia en las comunidades indígenas se refiere a las prácticas tradicionales de competencia por los bienes escasos y enfrentamientos con otras poblaciones por sus territorios. La violencia contra los niños no se ha conocido, y algunos estudios afirman la existencia de una tradición de buen trato hacia ellos. Este estudio muestra que la situación cambió y que nuevas formas de violencia están afectando a 725.000 habitantes de los 51 grupos indígenas de Venezuela, especialmente niños y adolescentes. El método utilizado fue entrevistas con informantes clave, un censo secundario, así como datos de la sociedad civil e informes de periodistas. Los resultados describen la existencia de cuatro tipos de violencia: (a) violencia estructural, derivada de la escasez de comida y medicinas, que ha causado muertes debido a la malnutrición y falta de atención médica; prostitución, tráfico de niñas y emigración forzosa; (b) la violencia del crimen organizado, que ejerce el control de la minería ilegal y afecta a los Yanomami y Pemón, como fuerza de trabajo para la producción de coca y tráfico de drogas en el caso de los Yupka; además de contrabando de gasolina con los Wayúu; (c) la violencia doméstica, debido a los cambios culturales, derivada de nuevos patrones de consumo de alcohol o la aplicación del castigo físico de niños entre los Piaroa y Yekuana; y (d) la violencia ilegal del estado para la imposición de la minería con los Pemón o la represión de las protestas con los Warao e Inga. El artículo expone la gran diferencia entre el discurso oficial de protección a los indígenas y las realidades de violencia, explotación criminal y violación de los derechos sufridos por los niños y adolescentes indígenas.

Resumo: A pesquisa sobre violência em comunidades indígenas se refere a práticas tradicionais de disputa por bens escassos e confrontos com outras populações pela posse de seus territórios. A violência contra crianças ainda não foi descrita, e alguns estudos afirmam uma tradição de bom tratamento em relação a elas. O estudo mostra que a situação já mudou, e que novas formas de violência estão afetando 725.000 habitantes de 51 grupos indígenas na Venezuela, especialmente contra crianças e adolescentes. O método utilizado teve como base entrevistas com informantes-chave e acesso a dados censitários e de fontes da sociedade civil, além de relatos de jornalistas. Os resultados descrevem a existência de quatro tipos violência: (a) violência estrutural, derivada da escassez de alimentos e medicamentos, que provoca mortes devido à desnutrição e à falta de atendimento médico; prostituição e tráfico de meninas, além de emigração forçada; (b) violência praticada pelo crime organizado, com o controle da mineração ilegal e que afeta os povos Yanomami e Pemón, como força de trabalho na produção de coca e no tráfico de drogas no povo Yupka e o contrabando de gasolina no povo Wayúu; (c) violência doméstica em função de mudanças culturais derivadas dos novos padrões de consumo de álcool ou do uso de castigo físico de crianças, entre os povos Piaroa e Yekuana; e (d) violência ilegal praticada pelo estado pela imposição da mineração no povo Pemón ou com a repressão de protestos pelos povos Warao e Inga. O artigo mostra a grande diferença entre o discurso oficial da proteção dos indígenas e a realidade de violência, exploração criminosa e violação dos direitos das crianças e adolescentes indígenas na Venezuela.

[Bullying of emos in Mexico City: an ethnographic analysis]. / La violencia juvenil contra emos: análisis etnográfico de su persecución en la Ciudad de México.

The article describes the beliefs that have fueled violence by various groups against male and female "emos" in Mexico City. This was an ethnographic study from 2012 to 2015 based on 24 in-depth interviews with young students enrolled in public universities in Mexico City in 2008. The study focused primarily on emos (10), but also included young people that described themselves as punks (6), darks (5), and rockers (3). The findings suggest that bullying of emos is deeply rooted in gender beliefs, particularly hegemonic notions of masculinity. The study highlights the fact that bullying is perpetrated not only by other youth, but also occurs in the family and school settings, where the violence is taken for granted as a legitimate construct associated with the idea of discipline in school. The strategies used by these young people to resist bullying suggest reflexive attitudes towards their historical, scholastic, and family contexts. They are able to reaffirm their collective demand for the right to education and diversity in university classes, but the situation calls for policies to prevent bullying, especially in the university community.

El objetivo de este artículo es describir las creencias que han alimentado el odio y las prácticas de violencia, ejercida por diversos sectores, contra varones y mujeres que se identifican a sí mismos como emos en la Ciudad de México. Se trata de un estudio etnográfico, realizado entre 2012 y 2015, apoyado en 24 entrevistas en profundidad a jóvenes estudiantes que en 2008 cursaban algún grado de bachillerato en universidades públicas en la Ciudad de México. Se privilegia la narrativa de los emos (10); sin embargo, se exploraron también los relatos de jóvenes que se consideran punks (6), darks (5) y metaleros (3). Los hallazgos sugieren que las agresiones contra emos tienen un fuerte arraigo en creencias de género, particularmente en la noción de masculinidad hegemónica. Destaca el hecho de que no sólo provienen de colectivos juveniles, también aparece la vida familiar y escolar como contextos de violencia naturalizada y construida como legítima por su vínculo con la noción de disciplina escolar. Las estrategias utilizadas por estos jóvenes para resistir la violencia sugieren posicionamientos reflexivos frente a su contexto histórico, escolar y familiar. Aunque como colectivo lograron colocar su exigencia del derecho a la educación y a la diversidad en aulas universitarias, se advierte la necesidad de diseñar políticas de prevención de violencia, particularmente en contextos escolares universitarios.

O artigo teve como objetivo descrever as concepções que têm alimentado o ódio e as práticas de violência, exercidas por diversos setores, contra homens e mulheres que se identificam a si mesmos como emos na Cidade do México. Trata-se de um estudo etnográfico, efetuado entre 2012 e 2015, sustentado em 24 entrevistas em profundidade a estudantes jovens que em 2008 cursavam algum grau dos últimos anos do ensino secundário nas universidades públicas da Cidade do México. Prioriza-se a narrativa dos emos (10); não entanto, se exploraram também os relatos dos jovens que se consideram punks (6), darks (5) e metaleiros (3). As conclusões sugerem que as agressões contra emos tem uma forte conexão com a percepção de gênero, particularmente ao respeito do conceito de masculinidade hegemônica. Destaca-se o fato de que não apenas emanam do coletivo juvenil, também emergem na vida familiar e escolar como contextos de violência naturalizada e construída como legítima, por causa do seu vínculo com a noção de disciplina escolar. As estratégias empregadas por estes jovens para resistir a violência sugerem posicionamentos reflexivos frente a seu contexto histórico, escolar e familiar. No entanto, como coletivo lograram colocar sua exigência ao direito a educação e a diversidade nas aulas universitárias, adverte-se a necessidade de desenhar políticas de prevenção a violência, especificamente nos contextos escolares universitários.

La violencia juvenil contra emos: análisis etnográfico de su persecución en la Ciudad de México / Bullying of emos in Mexico City: an ethnographic analysis / A violência juvenil contra os emos: análise etnográfico de sua perseguição na Cidade do México

El objetivo de este artículo es describir las creencias que han alimentado el odio y las prácticas de violencia, ejercida por diversos sectores, contra varones y mujeres que se identifican a sí mismos como emos en la Ciudad de México. Se trata de un estudio etnográfico, realizado entre 2012 y 2015, apoyado en 24 entrevistas en profundidad a jóvenes estudiantes que en 2008 cursaban algún grado de bachillerato en universidades públicas en la Ciudad de México. Se privilegia la narrativa de los emos (10); sin embargo, se exploraron también los relatos de jóvenes que se consideran punks (6), darks (5) y metaleros (3). Los hallazgos sugieren que las agresiones contra emos tienen un fuerte arraigo en creencias de género, particularmente en la noción de masculinidad hegemónica. Destaca el hecho de que no sólo provienen de colectivos juveniles, también aparece la vida familiar y escolar como contextos de violencia naturalizada y construida como legítima por su vínculo con la noción de disciplina escolar. Las estrategias utilizadas por estos jóvenes para resistir la violencia sugieren posicionamientos reflexivos frente a su contexto histórico, escolar y familiar. Aunque como colectivo lograron colocar su exigencia del derecho a la educación y a la diversidad en aulas universitarias, se advierte la necesidad de diseñar políticas de prevención de violencia, particularmente en contextos escolares universitarios.

The article describes the beliefs that have fueled violence by various groups against male and female "emos" in Mexico City. This was an ethnographic study from 2012 to 2015 based on 24 in-depth interviews with young students enrolled in public universities in Mexico City in 2008. The study focused primarily on emos (10), but also included young people that described themselves as punks (6), darks (5), and rockers (3). The findings suggest that bullying of emos is deeply rooted in gender beliefs, particularly hegemonic notions of masculinity. The study highlights the fact that bullying is perpetrated not only by other youth, but also occurs in the family and school settings, where the violence is taken for granted as a legitimate construct associated with the idea of discipline in school. The strategies used by these young people to resist bullying suggest reflexive attitudes towards their historical, scholastic, and family contexts. They are able to reaffirm their collective demand for the right to education and diversity in university classes, but the situation calls for policies to prevent bullying, especially in the university community.

O artigo teve como objetivo descrever as concepções que têm alimentado o ódio e as práticas de violência, exercidas por diversos setores, contra homens e mulheres que se identificam a si mesmos como emos na Cidade do México. Trata-se de um estudo etnográfico, efetuado entre 2012 e 2015, sustentado em 24 entrevistas em profundidade a estudantes jovens que em 2008 cursavam algum grau dos últimos anos do ensino secundário nas universidades públicas da Cidade do México. Prioriza-se a narrativa dos emos (10); não entanto, se exploraram também os relatos dos jovens que se consideram punks (6), darks (5) e metaleiros (3). As conclusões sugerem que as agressões contra emos tem uma forte conexão com a percepção de gênero, particularmente ao respeito do conceito de masculinidade hegemônica. Destaca-se o fato de que não apenas emanam do coletivo juvenil, também emergem na vida familiar e escolar como contextos de violência naturalizada e construída como legítima, por causa do seu vínculo com a noção de disciplina escolar. As estratégias empregadas por estes jovens para resistir a violência sugerem posicionamentos reflexivos frente a seu contexto histórico, escolar e familiar. No entanto, como coletivo lograram colocar sua exigência ao direito a educação e a diversidade nas aulas universitárias, adverte-se a necessidade de desenhar políticas de prevenção a violência, especificamente nos contextos escolares universitários.

Making and unmaking ethnicities in the Rwandan context: implication for gender-based violence, health, and wellbeing of women.

OBJECTIVES: To examine ethnicity and gender violence in Rwanda from cultural and historical perspectives and explore the encounters between cultural beliefs and practices and the new gender equality policy and programs and the implications of the particular encounters to the health of women. DESIGN: The study is a qualitative drawing from the growing range of interactive approaches and methods within an ethnographic framework of the research design. Twenty individual interviews, six focus group discussions and two 'community mobilization' dialogs were conducted. RESULTS: Violence has continued and there is a conflict between cultural tradition, the de-ethnicization, and gender equality policies. Some of the gender violence preventive programs are influenced by the ethos of the traditional norms, and therefore unwittingly perpetuate gender-based violence. CONCLUSIONS: In spite of the progress that Rwanda has made in political empowerment of women, it still seems a long way before real gender equality is achieved. It seems that women's empowerment is not only just an opportunity for political participation but also this is important. It is also about the capacity to make effective choices and to translate them into desired actions and outcomes, unfettered by cultural sanctions. Universalised, top-down gender policy programs have not furnished all women with the necessary capacity to make decisions that affect their traditionally all important reproductive functions; to challenge the embedded gender imbalance; and to strive for a holistic wellbeing of their families, where they play a central role. Indeed, some of the policies could have negative implications to the health of women, in particular, with sexually transmitted infections, including HIV and AIDS.

'Not men enough to rule!': politicization of ethnicities and forcible circumcision of Luo men during the postelection violence in Kenya.

BACKGROUND: As a contribution to ongoing research addressing sexual violence in war and conflict situations in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya and Rwanda, this paper argues that the way sexual violence intersects with other markers of identity, including ethnicity and class, is not clearly articulated. Male circumcision has been popularized, as a public health strategy for prevention of HIV transmission, although evidence of its efficacy is disputable and insufficient attention has been given to the social and cultural implications of male circumcision. METHODS: This paper draws from media reporting and the material supporting the prosecutor at the International Criminal Court case against four Kenyans accused of crimes against humanity, to explore the postelection violence, especially forcible male circumcision. RESULTS: During the postelection violence in Kenya, women were, as in other conflict situations, raped. In addition, men largely from the Luo ethnic group were forcibly circumcised. Male circumcision among the Gikuyu people is a rite of passage, but when forced upon the Luo men, it was also associated with cases of castration and other forms of genital mutilation. The aim appears to have been to humiliate and terrorize not just the individual men, but their entire communities. The paper examines male circumcision and questions why a ritual that has marked a life-course transition for inculcating ethical analysis of the self and others, became a tool of violence against men from an ethnic group where male circumcision is not a cultural practice. CONCLUSION: The paper then reviews the persistence and change in the ritual and more specifically, how male circumcision has become, not just a sexual health risk, but, contrary to the emerging health discourse and more significantly, a politicized ethnic tool and a status symbol among the Gikuyu elite. In the view of the way male circumcision was perpetrated in Kenya, we argue it should be considered as sexual violence, with far-reaching consequences for men's physical and mental health.