Phylogeny and biogeography of Astraea with new insights into the evolutionary history of Crotoneae (Euphorbiaceae).

We investigated species relationships in Astraea, a primarily Neotropical genus of tribe Crotoneae centered in Brazil, using data from the nuclear ribosomal ITS, and the plastid trnL-trnF and psbA-trnH spacers. With all species of Astraea sampled, along with representatives from across Crotoneae, the evolutionary history of Astraea was interpreted in a broader framework, as well as divergence time estimates and reconstructions of ancestral areas and morphological character states for Crotoneae. Our results show that Astraea is monophyletic, consisting of three main clades, and that most of its diversification took place from the Oligocene to the Pliocene, coincident with the formation of the South American "dry diagonal". As for Crotoneae, our data show incongruent phylogenetic positions between the nuclear and chloroplast data for most of its genera, and that the ancestor of the tribe was probably arborescent and might have occupied the Amazon Basin, most likely in moist forest, from which it spread throughout South America in the early Eocene. Ancestral state reconstruction recovered deeply lobed leaves and staminate petals bearing moniliform trichomes as putative synapomorphies for Astraea, whereas the absence or strong reduction of pistillate petals is widespread in Crotoneae and may be a synapomorphy for the tribe.

Study on the Pharmacognosy of S. Spatuliforius.

Sauropus spatulifolius Beille (S. spatulifolius) is the dried plant of the genus Sauropus, and belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. To study the pharmacognosy of Sauropus spatulifolius Beille (S. spatulifolius). A preliminary analysis in terms of primal identification, macroscopic identification and chemistry was carried out on S. spatulifolius. The transverse section of S. spatulifolius roots and stem showed that the cambium was obvious and the xylem was well developed; the transverse section of roots shows that the phloem appeared narrow and the vascular bundle was collateral. The transverse section of the stem showed occasional prickling of the periderm. The transverse section of the leaves showed that the lower epidermal cells are covered by non-glandular hairs; the palisade cells and spongy tissues were clearly distinguished; the stomatic type of the lower epidermis was paracytic, with stomatal index of 31.76%. Fiber, scalariform vessels and spiral vessels, pollen grains and so on were commonly seen in the powder. Through chemical identification, polysaccharides, glycosides, alkaloids and other components were identified in the plant. TLC result shows that T-test result was 0.018, indicating significant difference. The pharmacognostic features of S. spatulifolius are obvious, providing reference for further utilization and development of this plant.

Seed size evolution and biogeography of Plukenetia (Euphorbiaceae), a pantropical genus with traditionally cultivated oilseed species.

BACKGROUND: Plukenetia is a small pantropical genus of lianas and vines with variably sized edible oil-rich seeds that presents an ideal system to investigate neotropical and pantropical diversification patterns and seed size evolution. We assessed the biogeography and seed evolution of Plukenetia through phylogenetic analyses of a 5069 character molecular dataset comprising five nuclear and two plastid markers for 86 terminals in subtribe Plukenetiinae (representing 20 of ~ 23 Plukenetia species). Two nuclear genes, KEA1 and TEB, were used for phylogenetic reconstruction for the first time. Our goals were: (1) produce a robust, time-dependent evolutionary framework for Plukenetia using BEAST; (2) reconstruct its biogeographical history with ancestral range estimation in BIOGEOBEARS; (3) define seed size categories; (4) identify patterns of seed size evolution using ancestral state estimation; and (5) conduct regression analyses with putative drivers of seed size using the threshold model. RESULTS: Plukenetia was resolved into two major groups, which we refer to as the pinnately- and palmately-veined clades. Our analyses suggest Plukenetia originated in the Amazon or Atlantic Forest of Brazil during the Oligocene (28.7 Mya) and migrated/dispersed between those regions and Central America/Mexico throughout the Miocene. Trans-oceanic dispersals explain the pantropical distribution of Plukenetia, including from the Amazon to Africa in the Early Miocene (17.4 Mya), followed by Africa to Madagascar and Africa to Southeast Asia in the Late Miocene (9.4 Mya) and Pliocene (4.5 Mya), respectively. We infer a single origin of large seeds in the ancestor of Plukenetia. Seed size fits a Brownian motion model of trait evolution and is moderately to strongly associated with plant size, fruit type/dispersal syndrome, and seedling ecology. Biome shifts were not drivers of seed size, although there was a weak association with a transition to fire prone semi-arid savannas. CONCLUSIONS: The major relationships among the species of Plukenetia are now well-resolved. Our biogeographical analyses support growing evidence that many pantropical distributions developed by periodic trans-oceanic dispersals throughout the Miocene and Pliocene. Selection on a combination of traits contributed to seed size variation, while movement between forest edge/light gap and canopy niches likely contributed to the seed size extremes in Plukenetia.

Análise da composição do óleo essencial de Croton tricolor como um modelo na criação de acordes em fragrâncias na indústria da perfumaria / Analysis of the Croton tricolor essential oil composition as a model in the creation of fragrance accords for the perfumery industry

O uso de óleos essenciais na indústria de fragrância tem crescido a cada ano. A indústria de cosméticos, em geral, tem buscado este tipo de ingrediente com o objetivo de agregar atributos únicos e melhores aos seus produtos e assim entregar, ao consumidor final, diferenciais que poderão valorizar suas formulações, além de simplesmente perfumar. O benefício de usar óleos naturais ou acordes de seus principais componentes em formulações de fragrâncias é que estes se tornam composições mais ricas, e em muitos casos, capazes de proporcionar perfumação prolongada ao produto, quando comparados àqueles sintetizados. A presença de compostos variados nos óleos, como terpenos e resinas, ajudam a promover singularidades à fragrância e até mesmo servem como inspiração às criações de produtos com descrições olfativas de produtos naturais. Croton tricolor (Euphorbiaceae), segundo avaliação inicial de um perfumista, apresentou excelentes características olfativas, o que facilitou seu uso nos estudos. A análise do óleo essencial de C. tricolor por cromatografia à gás com detector de ionização de chamas (CG/DIC) e cromatografia à gás acoplada à espectrometria de massas (CG/EM) permitiu quantificar e identificar seus principais marcadores, bem como utilizar estas informações para construção de acorde olfativo, reproduzindo o odor do produto natural. O óleo essencial de C. tricolor apresentou como principais componentes o biciclogermacreno (15,4%), espatulenol (10,5%) e o alfa-pineno (6,8%). A partir destes dados foi construído um acorde aromático que reproduziu o odor original, contendo alfa-pineno (7%), álcool fenetílico (5%), óleo de cedro (5%), óleo de laranja (0,5%), limoneno (1%), eucaliptol (0,5%) e nerolidol (0,3%). Os compostos majoritários, biciclogermacreno e espatulenol, não foram adicionados por não serem disponíveis comercialmente, por isso, usaram-se outras matérias-primas semelhantes em perfil olfativo e ofertadas no mercado, como foi o caso do uso de álcool fenetílico, óleo de cedro e óleo de laranja na criação do acorde. Os resultados evidenciaram que a criação de acordes é um método economicamente viável para a reprodução de odores naturais que podem ser utilizados em formulações de fragrâncias, além de ajudar a resolver problemas na produção e comercialização de óleos essenciais como, sazonalidade e reprodutibilidade

The use of essential oils in the fragrance industry has grown every year. The cosmetics industry has generally sought this type of ingredient, with the aim of providing its products with differentiated benefits (unique and better attributes), and thus delivering to the final consumer a differential that can enhance their formulations, besides simply perfuming their products (theirs). The benefit of using natural oils or accords of their major components in fragrance formulations makes them richer, and in many cases capable of providing prolonged perfuming to the final product when compared to synthesized products. The presence of varied compounds in the oils, such as terpenes or (and) resins, helps to promote differentiated fragrance characteristics (singularities/peculiarities to the fragrance), or (and) even to serve as inspiration for product creations with olfactory descriptions of natural products. Croton tricolor (Euphorbiaceae), accordingly to an initial evaluation of a perfumer, presented excellent olfactory characteristics, which facilitated its use in the studies. The analysis of the C. tricolor essential oil by gas chromatography with flame ionization detector (GC/FID) and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC/MS) allowed to quantify and identify their main markers, as well as to use this information to construct an olfactory accord that reproduces the odor of natural products. The C. tricolor essential oil had as main components bicyclogermacrene (15.4%), spathulenol (10.5%) and alpha pinene (6.8%). From these data, an aromatic accord was created reproducing the original odor containing alpha pinene (7%), phenethyl alcohol (5%), cedar oil (5%), orange oil (0.5%), limonene (1%), eucalyptol (0.5%) and nerolidol (0.3%). Some of the major compounds, bicyclogermacrene and spatulenol, could not be added because they were not commercially available. In these cases (therefore), other products (raw materials) with similar olfactory characteristics (olfactory profile) and commercially viable (offered on the market) were used, such as the use of phenethyl alcohol, cedar oil and orange oil in the accord creation. The results showed that accord creation is an economically viable method for the reproduction of natural odors that can be used in fragrance formulations and may help to solve problems that exist in the production and commercialization of essential oils such as production seasonality and reproducibility

Intersexual conflict over seed size is stronger in more outcrossed populations of a mixed-mating plant.

In polyandrous species, fathers benefit from attracting greater maternal investment toward their offspring at the expense of the offspring of other males, while mothers should usually allocate resources equally among offspring. This conflict can lead to an evolutionary arms race between the sexes, manifested through antagonistic genes whose expression in offspring depends upon the parent of origin. The arms race may involve an increase in the strength of maternally versus paternally derived alleles engaged in a "tug of war" over maternal provisioning or repeated "recognition-avoidance" coevolution where growth-enhancing paternally derived alleles evolve to escape recognition by maternal genes targeted to suppress their effect. Here, we develop predictions to distinguish between these two mechanisms when considering crosses among populations that have reached different equilibria in this intersexual arms race. We test these predictions using crosses within and among populations of Dalechampia scandens (Euphorbiaceae) that presumably have experienced different intensities of intersexual conflict, as inferred from their historical differences in mating system. In crosses where the paternal population was more outcrossed than the maternal population, hybrid seeds were larger than those normally produced in the maternal population, whereas when the maternal population was more outcrossed, hybrid seeds were smaller than normal. These results confirm the importance of mating systems in determining the intensity of intersexual conflict over maternal investment and provide strong support for a tug-of-war mechanism operating in this conflict. They also yield clear predictions for the fitness consequences of gene flow among populations with different mating histories.

Floral morphology and anatomy of Dalechampia alata Klotzsch ex Baill. (Euphorbiaceae), with emphasis on secretory structures.

The morphology and anatomy of the flower of Dalechampia alata, as well as the chemical nature of the exudates secreted in the inflorescence were studied using light microscope. This is the first report showing the presence of colleters in the genus Dalechampia. In the staminate flower occur a group of small secretory glands. The histochemical results indicate that the substance secreted from the glands is lipidic and resinuous in nature, while in the colleters it consists of polysaccharides and lipid-rich substances. The ovule of D. alata are anatropous, subglobose and bitegmic. It presents obturator, micropyle occluded by nucellar beak and meristematic activity in the ovary wall. The secretion produced in the stigmatic and transmitting tissue consists of polysaccharides.

Floral morphology and anatomy of Dalechampia alata Klotzsch ex Baill. (Euphorbiaceae), with emphasis on secretory structures / Morfologia e anatomia da flor de Dalechampia alata Klotzsch ex Baill. (Euphorbiaceae), com ênfase nas estruturas secretoras

Abstract The morphology and anatomy of the flower of Dalechampia alata, as well as the chemical nature of the exudates secreted in the inflorescence were studied using light microscope. This is the first report showing the presence of colleters in the genus Dalechampia. In the staminate flower occur a group of small secretory glands. The histochemical results indicate that the substance secreted from the glands is lipidic and resinuous in nature, while in the colleters it consists of polysaccharides and lipid-rich substances. The ovule of D. alata are anatropous, subglobose and bitegmic. It presents obturator, micropyle occluded by nucellar beak and meristematic activity in the ovary wall. The secretion produced in the stigmatic and transmitting tissue consists of polysaccharides.

Resumo A morfologia e anatomia das flores de Dalechampia alata, bem como a natureza química dos exsudatos secretados na inflorescência foram analisadas utilizando microscopia de luz. Este é o primeiro relato de coléteres para o gênero Dalechampia. Um grupo de pequenas glândulas secretoras ocorre nas flores estaminadas. Os resultados dos testes histoquímicos indicam que a substância secretada pelas glândulas apresenta natureza lipídica e resinosa, enquanto nos coléteres a secreção é constituída de polissacarídeos e lipídeos. O ovulo de D. alata é anátropo, subgloboso e bitegumentado. A presença de obturador, projeção do tecido nucelar pela micrópila e atividade meristemática na parede do ovário foram relatadas. A secreção do estigma e do tecido transmissor é constituída de polissacarídeos.

Foliar secretory structures in Crotoneae (Euphorbiaceae): Diversity, anatomy, and evolutionary significance.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Phylogenetic and morphological studies have helped clarify the systematics of large and complex groups such as the tribe Crotoneae (Euphorbiaceae). However, very little is known about the diversity, structure, and function of anatomical features in this tribe. Crotoneae comprises the species-rich pantropical genus Croton and six small neotropical genera. Here we characterized the anatomy of leaf secretory structures in members of this tribe and explored their function and evolutionary significance. METHODS: Young and mature leaves of 26 species were studied using standard anatomical light microscopy techniques. Three sections of Croton and one representative of Brasiliocroton and Astraea were sampled. KEY RESULTS: We identified five types of secretory structures: laticifers, colleters, extrafloral nectaries, idioblasts, and secretory trichomes. Laticifers were present in all species studied except Croton alabamensis, which instead presented secretory parenchyma cells. Articulated laticifers are reported in Crotoneae for the first time. Colleters of the standard type were observed in the majority of the sampled taxa. Extrafloral nectaries were present in section Cleodora and in B. mamoninha, but absent in section Lamprocroton and Astraea lobata. Idioblasts were spread throughout the palisade and/or spongy parenchyma in most of the studied species. Secretory trichomes were restricted to Lamprocroton except for C. imbricatus. CONCLUSIONS: This study revealed a high diversity of secretory structures, including novel ones, in one of the largest clades of Euphorbiaceae. Our results are promising for investigations on the anatomical and ecophysiological bases of species diversification within Euphorbiaceae.

Occurrence of stomatal patchiness and its spatial scale in leaves from various sizes of trees distributed in a South-east Asian tropical rainforest in Peninsular Malaysia.

In this study, we demonstrated the occurrence of stomatal patchiness and its spatial scale in leaves from various sizes of trees grown in a lowland dipterocarp forest in Peninsular Malaysia. To evaluate the patterns of stomatal behavior, we used three techniques simultaneously to analyze heterobaric or homobaric leaves from five tree species ranging from 0.6 to 31 m in height: (i) diurnal changes in chlorophyll fluorescence imaging, (ii) observation and simulation of leaf gas-exchange rates and (iii) a pressure-infiltration method. Measurements were performed in situ with 1000 or 500 µmol m(-2) s(-1) photosynthetic photon flux density. Diurnal patterns in the spatial distribution of photosynthetic electron transport rate (J) mapped from chlorophyll fluorescence images, a comparison of observed and simulated leaf gas-exchange rates, and the spatial distribution of stomatal apertures obtained from the acid-fuchsin-infiltrated area showed that patchy stomatal closure coupled with severe midday depression of photosynthesis occurred in Neobalanocarpus heimii (King) Ashton, a higher canopy tree with heterobaric leaves due to the higher leaf temperature and vapor pressure deficit. However, subcanopy or understory trees showed uniform stomatal behavior throughout the day, although they also have heterobaric leaves. These results suggest that the occurrence of stomatal patchiness is determined by tree size and/or environmental conditions. The analysis of spatial scale by chlorophyll fluorescence imaging showed that several adjacent anatomical patches (lamina areas bounded by bundle-sheath extensions within the lamina) may co-operate for the distributed patterns of J and stomatal apertures.

Genetic constraints predict evolutionary divergence in Dalechampia blossoms.

If genetic constraints are important, then rates and direction of evolution should be related to trait evolvability. Here we use recently developed measures of evolvability to test the genetic constraint hypothesis with quantitative genetic data on floral morphology from the Neotropical vine Dalechampia scandens (Euphorbiaceae). These measures were compared against rates of evolution and patterns of divergence among 24 populations in two species in the D. scandens species complex. We found clear evidence for genetic constraints, particularly among traits that were tightly phenotypically integrated. This relationship between evolvability and evolutionary divergence is puzzling, because the estimated evolvabilities seem too large to constitute real constraints. We suggest that this paradox can be explained by a combination of weak stabilizing selection around moving adaptive optima and small realized evolvabilities relative to the observed additive genetic variance.

Modified leaves with disk-shaped nectaries of Macaranga sinensis (Euphorbiaceae) provide reward for pollinators.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Nectar is the most common reward provided by animal-pollinated flowers. Diversity in position and structure of floral nectaries suggests that floral nectar production evolved repeatedly, but the evolutionary origins are not well known. Flowers of the genus Macaranga (Euphorbiaceae) are apetalous and lack floral nectar. Nevertheless, many Macaranga species possess disk-shaped nectaries on their leaves, sought by ants that defend plants from herbivory. In some Macaranga species, similar glands also occur on the bracteoles-modified leaves subtending the flowers. We investigated whether these glands on the bracteoles of M. sinensis are involved in pollination. • METHODS: Flower visitors were captured, and body pollen was examined. The behavior of flower visitors on inflorescences was also observed. Sugar composition of the nectar from bracteoles and leaves was collected and analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography. • KEY RESULTS: Various bees and flies with body pollen visited both male and female inflorescences, feeding on nectar from the bracteoles and touching anthers and stigmas in the process. Sugar composition of nectar from the bracteoles and the leaves did not differ. • CONCLUSIONS: Macaranga sinensis was pollinated by insects foraging on the disk-shaped nectaries on bracteoles. The similar appearance, position, and sugar composition of nectar suggest that disk-shaped nectaries on bracteoles and leaves are homologous and that nectaries on leaves were recruited to inflorescences to serve floral function in M. sinensis. Having protective mutualism with ants has likely opened an unusual route for the evolution of floral nectar in otherwise non-nectar-producing flowers of M. sinensis.

Are pollination "syndromes" predictive? Asian dalechampia fit neotropical models.

Using pollination syndrome parameters and pollinator correlations with floral phenotype from the Neotropics, we predicted that Dalechampia bidentata Blume (Euphorbiaceae) in southern China would be pollinated by female resin-collecting bees between 12 and 20 mm in length. Observations in southwestern Yunnan Province, China, revealed pollination primarily by resin-collecting female Megachile (Callomegachile) faceta Bingham (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae). These bees, at 14 mm in length, were in the predicted size range, confirming the utility of syndromes and models developed in distant regions. Phenotypic selection analyses and estimation of adaptive surfaces and adaptive accuracies together suggest that the blossoms of D. bidentata are well adapted to pollination by their most common floral visitors.

Sexual dimorphism in a dioecious population of the wind-pollinated herb Mercurialis annua: the interactive effects of resource availability and competition.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Male-biased sex allocation commonly occurs in wind-pollinated hermaphroditic plants, and is often positively associated with size, notably in terms of height. Currently, it is not well established whether a corresponding pattern holds for dioecious plants: do males of wind-pollinated species exhibit greater reproductive allocation than females? Here, sexual dimorphism is investigated in terms of life history trade-offs in a dioecious population of the wind-pollinated ruderal herb Mercurialis annua. METHODS: The allocation strategies of males and females grown under different soil nutrient availability and competitive (i.e. no, male or female competitor) regimes were compared. KEY RESULTS: Male reproductive allocation increased disproportionately with biomass, and was greater than that of females when grown in rich soils. Sexual morphs differentially adjusted their reproductive allocation in response to local environmental conditions. In particular, males reduced their reproductive allocation in poor soils, whereas females increased theirs, especially when competing with another female rather than growing alone. Finally, males displayed smaller above-ground vegetative sizes than females, but neither nutrient availability nor competition had a strong independent effect on relative size disparities between the sexes. CONCLUSIONS: Selection appears to favour plasticity in reproductive allocation in dioecious M. annua, thereby maintaining a relatively constant size hierarchy between sexual morphs. In common with other dioecious species, there seems to be little divergence in the niches occupied by males and females of M. annua.

Microsporogenesis variation in Codiaeum producing inaperturate pollen grain.

A study of microsporogenesis (the earliest stage of pollen ontogeny) was undertaken in seven cultivars of Codiaeum variegatum var. pictum, a eudicot species that produces inaperturate pollen grains. Microsporogenesis appears highly variable for the developmental events suspected to be implicated in the determination of aperture pattern. Most eudicots have tri-aperturate pollen grains and microsporogenesis is described as highly conserved in this clade. The observed burst of variation in C. variegatum therefore appears especially remarkable. A plausible hypothesis to explain the variation is that the pollen being inaperturate, the selective forces applying on the ontogeny of the aperture pattern are relaxed.

The limited importance of size-asymmetric light competition and growth of pioneer species in early secondary forest succession in Vietnam.

It is generally believed that asymmetric competition for light plays a predominant role in determining the course of succession by increasing size inequalities between plants. Size-related growth is the product of size-related light capture and light-use efficiency (LUE). We have used a canopy model to calculate light capture and photosynthetic rates of pioneer species in sequential vegetation stages of a young secondary forest stand. Growth of the same saplings was followed in time as succession proceeded. Photosynthetic rate per unit plant mass (P(mass): mol C g(-1) day(-1)), a proxy for plant growth, was calculated as the product of light capture efficiency [Phi(mass): mol photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) g(-1) day(-1)] and LUE (mol C mol PPFD(-1)). Species showed different morphologies and photosynthetic characteristics, but their light-capturing and light-use efficiencies, and thus P (mass), did not differ much. This was also observed in the field: plant growth was not size-asymmetric. The size hierarchy that was present from the very early beginning of succession remained for at least the first 5 years. We conclude, therefore, that in slow-growing regenerating vegetation stands, the importance of asymmetric competition for light and growth can be much less than is often assumed.

Actividad Antitumoral y Anti VIH-I de la Alchornea castaneifolia, HIPORURO / Antitumor and Anti HIV-I castaneifolia Alchornea, HIPORURO

Se evaluó la actividad antitumoral, sobre el sarcoma 180, y la actividad antiviral sobre el virus del VIH-1, de los extractos de las hojas de Alchornea castaneifolia, HIPORURO, aislándose algunos marcadores químicos. Método: La actividad antiviral sobre la Transcriptasa Reversa (RT) del HIV-1, fue realizada con el Kit Lenti RT TM Activity Assay, usando como control positivo Nevirapine 1nM. En el ensayo en Artemia salina se siguió la metodología del CYTED. Evaluamos el efecto antitumoral, en vivo, del extracto atomizado de las hojas de Alchornea castaneifolia HIPORURO, en ratones albinos hembras, a los cuales se les inoculó, vía subcutánea, 0.5 ml de líquido ascítico con células tumorales de sarcoma 180 (TIB 66) Lot -3582231, donado por el NAMRID. Se evaluó: las metástasis, la diferenciación neoplásica, la viabilidad tumoral y la apoptosis. El fraccionamiento de los extractos biactivos, se realizó utilizando técnicas espectroscópicas y cromatográficas, búsquedas automatizadas instrumentales (GC-EM) y electrónicas en diferentes bases de datos. Resultados: El extracto de hojas de hiporuro, presentó una inhibición antiviral de 67.64% sobre el VIH-1, similar al alcaloide aislado, en el presente trabajo, y codificado como H%, en comparación con el Nevirapine, fármaco usado en la terapia de pacientes con HIV-1, el cual presentó 71% de inhibición. En Artemia salina, la CL50 fue de 14,95 ppm, con un límite superior e inferior, al 95%, de 25,77 ppm y de 8,67 ppm, respectivamente, con un valor de p<0,01. Asimismo, se pudo observar que la cepa de sarcoma P180 utilizada, presenta un alto grado de indiferenciación, con diseminación a partes blandas y celoma, siendo el estómago el órgano más afectado. La neoplasia cursó con grandes áreas de necrosis que fueron de 60 a 80%. En los grupos de prevención se obtuvieron resultados satisfactorios por el alto grado de necrosis tumoral, pero sin valor significativo. Se observó hiperplasia del tejido linfoide, como probable respuesta...

The antitumoral activity of Alchornea castaneifolia, HIPORURO from leaves over 180 and its antiviral activity over HIV-1 virus were evaluated. Some chemical markers were isolated. Methods: The antiviral activity over the Transcriptasa Reversa of HIV-1 was performed with the Lenti RT TM Activity Assay kit. Nevirapine, 1nM, was used as positive control. CYTED methodology was followed on the Artemia Salina test. The antitumoral effect was evaluated in vivo from the atomized extract from the Alchornea castaneifolia leaves HIPORURO. Albino female mice were inoculated with o.5 mL of ascetic liquid with tumor cells of sarcoma 180 (TIB 66) Lot-3582231, donated by NAMRID. Metastasis, neoplásica difference, tumor viability and apoptosis were evaluated. The breaking up of the bioactive extracts was done utilizing spectroscopy and chromatographic techniques. Automated instrumental and electronic search (GC-EM) was done over several databases. Results: The extract from hiporuro leaves presented 67.64% antiviral inhibition over HIV-I. In contrast, Nevirapine presented 71% inhibition. In the Artemia Salina test, CL50 had 14.95 ppm, with superior and inferior limits, at 95% confidence, of 25.77ppm and 8.67 ppm respectively (p < 0.01). Sarcoma P 180 presented a high grade of undifferentiation with spreading to soft parts and celoma. Stomach was the most affected organ. Neoplasia had large areas of necrosis (60 to 80 %). Satisfactory results were obtained in prevention groups due to the high linfoide tissue as a probable response to the tumoral injury. Presence of FITOL and CANFEROL was corroborated and isolated by the H54 alkaloid. Attached are the spectrals from the RMN of 1H y 13C, as well as the gas-mass chromatograms of the isolated components. Discussion: Fitol, canferol, isolated alkaloid H5 and the presence of flavonoides could be involved in the pharmacological action of the hiporuro extract.

Floral gigantism in Rafflesiaceae.

Species of Rafflesiaceae possess the world's largest flowers (up to 1 meter in diameter), yet their precise evolutionary relationships have been elusive, hindering our understanding of the evolution of their extraordinary reproductive morphology. We present results of phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial, nuclear, and plastid data showing that Rafflesiaceae are derived from within Euphorbiaceae, the spurge family. Most euphorbs produce minute flowers, suggesting that the enormous flowers of Rafflesiaceae evolved from ancestors with tiny flowers. Given the inferred phylogeny, we estimate that there was a circa 79-fold increase in flower diameter on the stem lineage of Rafflesiaceae, making this one of the most dramatic cases of size evolution reported for eukaryotes.

Comparison of the physiology, morphology, and leaf demography of tropical saplings with different crown shapes.

Branch architecture, leaf photosynthetic traits, and leaf demography were investigated in saplings of two woody species, Homolanthus caloneurus and Macaranga rostulata, co-occurring in the understory of a tropical mountain forest. M. rostulata saplings have cylindrical crowns, whereas H. caloneurus saplings have flat crowns. Saplings of the two species were found not to differ in area-based photosynthetic traits and in average light conditions in the understory of the studied site, but they do differ in internode length, leaf emergence rate, leaf lifespan, and total leaf area. Displayed leaf area of H. caloneurus saplings, which have the more rapid leaf emergence, was smaller than that of M. rostulata saplings, which have a longer leaf lifespan and larger total leaf area, although M. rostulata saplings showed a higher degree of leaf overlap. Short leaf lifespan and consequent small total leaf area would be linked to leaf overlap avoidance in the densely packed flat H. caloneurus crown. In contrast, M. rostulata saplings maintained a large total leaf area by producing leaves with a long leaf lifespan. In these understory saplings with a different crown architecture, we observed two contrasting adaptation strategies to shade which are achieved by adjusting a suite of morphological and leaf demographic characters. Each understory species has a suite of morphological traits and leaf demography specific to its architecture, thus attaining leaf overlap avoidance or large total leaf area.

Patterns of asymmetry in the twining vine Dalechampia scandens (Euphorbiaceae): ontogenetic and hierarchical perspectives.

We studied patterns of fluctuating asymmetry (FA) in leaves of four populations of the neotropical vine Dalechampia scandens to obtain insight into the origin of leaf FA and the level at which it is controlled. We analysed correlations in signed and unsigned asymmetry at different organizational levels. We also analysed the ontogeny of FA during leaf expansion to test whether asymmetry is regulated during cell expansion, and whether fast-expanding leaves are more or less asymmetrical. Signed asymmetry was negatively correlated between successive leaves, that is, when the right side of a leaf was larger than the left side, the next leaf on the shoot tended to show the opposite pattern. The magnitude of FA, however, was very weakly correlated among successive leaves or among leaves measured on different shoots. The direction of asymmetry did not change during leaf expansion, but the relative asymmetry, that is, asymmetry corrected for difference in trait size, decreased during expansion. We found a weak negative relationship between leaf expansion rate and relative asymmetry on the fully expanded leaves. These results suggest that leaf asymmetry in Dalechampia originates from perturbations in cell proliferation in the stem, creating asymmetries in opposite directions in successive leaves. These asymmetries persist during leaf expansion, but tend to be reduced by unknown mechanisms.