Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) incidence in cattle and buffaloes and its associated farm-level economic costs in endemic India.

The study investigated the important epidemiological parameters and farm-level economic costs of FMD incidence in cattle and buffaloes during 2013-14 to 2015-16 in various states of India. Multistage random sampling procedure was adopted for the primary survey and data was collected through face-to-face personal interview from 18,609 cattle and buffalo rearing farm households from 123 districts across twelve states and one Union Territory. Besides epidemiological parameters, different farm-level direct and indirect loss associated with FMD was assessed at disaggregated level (states) by employing deterministic mathematical models. Highest number of affected villages and disease incidence was observed in non- FMD control programme (FMD-CP) implemented Madhya Pradesh and Assam states, respectively whereas negligible incidence was in FMD-CP implemented Punjab state. The disease incidence was high during 2013-14 and declined during 2014-15 and 2015-16, respectively implied severe incidence scenario (2013-14) succeeded by moderate (2014-15) and mild (2015-16) scenarios. The crossbred and high productive animals were severely affected than local breeds whereas on sexwise and agewise comparison revealed higher incidence in females and adult animals. During severe incidence scenario, milk loss/animal ranged from USD 6.87-47.44, 18.42-125.88, 16.33-91.43, and 27.17-123.62; mortality loss/animal ranged from USD 32.61-804.27, 30.76-577.7, 65.36-502.2, and 188.04-413.7; distress sale loss/animal ranged from USD 3.22-188.63, 64.34-519.3, 214.47-341.8, and 209.11-450.3; and opportunity cost of labour/animal from USD 5.49-54.29, 5.49-67.78; 7.95-31.37 and 9.83-72.38 in indigenous cattle, crossbred cattle, local and improved buffalo, respectively. The estimated draught power loss/animal varied from USD 39.46-142.94 with least being in Madhya Pradesh and highest in Assam states whereas the median treatment cost/animal was USD 9.18 and USD 27.07 in indigenous cattle and upgraded buffaloes, respectively. The total farm-level economic loss projected due to FMD in cattle and buffaloes in India was USD 3159 million (INR 221,110 million), USD 270 million (INR 18,910 million) and USD 152 million (INR 10,610 million), respectively during the severe, moderate and mild incidence scenarios at 2015-16 constant prices. The loss varied across the states, and in severe incidence scenario, the country might lose USD 3.2 billion/year and hence, the bi-annual vaccination schedule need to be strictly implemented in all the states. Besides timely vaccination coverage, managing unabated animal movement, educating and motivating the farmers to vaccinate their animals might reduce the incidence and consequential losses to various stakeholders in endemic states like India.

Farmers' willingness to pay for foot and mouth disease vaccine in different cattle production systems in Amhara region of Ethiopia.

Although foot and mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in Ethiopia, use of vaccines to control the disease has been practiced sparingly. This is due to perceived high cost of good quality FMD vaccine, and consequently limited availability of the vaccine in the market. This study was conducted to assess farmers' willingness to pay (WTP) for a quality FMD vaccine and identify factors that could potentially influence their WTP in Amhara region of Ethiopia. A total of 398 farmers from four districts that represent the mixed crop-livestock and market oriented production systems were enrolled for the study. The WTP was estimated using contingent valuation method with a double-bound dichotomous choice bid design. Interval regression analysis was used to estimate mean WTP and identify factors that influence it. The results showed that the mean WTP of all farmers was Ethiopian Birr (ETB) 58.23 (95% CI: 56.20-60.26)/annual dose. It was ETB 75.23 (95% CI: 72. 97-74.49) for market oriented farmers and ETB 42.6 (95%CI: 41.24-43.96) for mixed crop livestock farmers. Willingness to pay for the vaccine was significantly higher for farmers in market oriented system than in mixed crop livestock system. It was also significantly higher for farmers whose main livelihood is livestock than those whose main livelihood is other than livestock, and for farmers who keep exotic breed cattle and their crosses than those who keep only local cattle breeds. Willingness to pay significantly increased with increase in FMD impact perception and vaccine knowledge scores of farmers. The high mean WTP estimates showed that farmers are enthusiastic about using the FMD vaccine. Market-oriented farmers with higher willingness to pay may be more likely to pay full cost if official FMD vaccination is planned in the country than mixed crop livestock farmers. Animal health extension about livestock diseases impact and vaccines has a potential to increase farmers' uptake of vaccines for disease control.

Evaluation of human resources needed and comparison with human resources available to implement emergency vaccination in case of foot and mouth disease outbreaks in Tunisia.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease that affects domestic and wild artiodactyl animals and causes considerable economic losses related to outbreak management, production losses and trade impacts. In Tunisia, the last FMD outbreak took place in 2018-2019. The effectiveness of control measures implemented to control FMD depends, in particular, on the human resources used to implement them. Tunisia has the ultimate objective of obtaining OIE status as 'FMD-free with vaccination'. The aim of this study was to determine and compare the necessary and available human resources to control FMD outbreaks in Tunisia using emergency vaccination and to assess the gaps that would play a role in the implementation of the strategy. We developed a resources-requirement grid of necessary human resources for the management of the emergency vaccination campaign launched after the identification of a FMD-infected premises in Tunisia. Field surveys, conducted in the 24 governorates of Tunisia, allowed quantifying the available human resources for several categories of skills considered in the resources-requirement grid. For each governorate, we then compared available and necessary human resources to implement vaccination according to eight scenarios mixing generalised or cattle-targeted vaccination and different levels of human resources. The resources-requirement grid included 11 tasks in three groups: management of FMD-infected premises, organisational tasks and vaccination implementation. The available human resources for vaccination-related tasks included veterinarians and technicians from the public sector and appointed private veterinarians. The comparison of available and necessary human resources showed vaccination-related tasks to be the most time-consuming in terms of managing a FMD outbreak. Increasing the available human resources using appointed private veterinarians allowed performing the emergency vaccination of animals in the governorate in due time, especially if vaccination was targeted on cattle. The overall approach was validated by comparing the predicted and observed durations of a vaccination campaign conducted under the same conditions as during the 2014 Tunisian outbreak. This study could provide support to the Tunisian Veterinary Services or to other countries to optimise the management of a FMD outbreak.

Economic impact assessment of foot-and-mouth disease burden and control in pastoral local dairy cattle production systems in Northern Nigeria: A cross-sectional survey.

Milk has been envisaged as a major source of high-quality protein and bioavailable nutrients to humans. Its production is constraint by foot and mouth disease (FMD), a contagious viral disease of very high economic importance worldwide. This study was aimed at assessing the economic impact of FMD in pastoral dairy cattle herds in Nigeria and determines returns to investments in its control to better inform policy decisions. An interview questionnaire-based cross-sectional study was conducted in 660 nomadic and agro-pastoral dairy cattle herds in 2019. Economic impact analyses were conducted using the total economic cost and benefit-cost analysis models. Of the 660 pastoralists enrolled, 92.6% (n = 611) participated. Nomadic pastoralists constituted 50.7% (n = 310) of the respondents while 49.3% (n = 301) were agro-pastoralists. Most of the respondents (66.4%, n = 406) had no formal education. The value of visible losses to the herders was estimated at USD 15,591,694.30 and the cost of control by treatment of secondary infections was USD 463,673.70. The economic impact of FMD due to production losses and costs of treatment to pastoralists was estimated to be USD 16,055,368.00. Return on investment in FMD control was positive with a benefit-cost ratio of 33.6. The estimated total economic costs due to FMD have indicated that it is a disease of high economic importance to dairy production herds and must be controlled to assure food security, local incomes to herders, and protein requirement of human population, especially the children in FMD endemic countries.

Foot and mouth disease outbreak investigation and estimation of its economic impact in selected districts in northwest Ethiopia.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD), a highly contagious and economically important disease of cloven-hoofed animals, is endemic in Ethiopia. Foot and mouth disease outbreak investigation and follow-up studies were undertaken to identify the causative serotype, determine the morbidity and mortality, and estimate the economic impact of the outbreaks in selected districts of Northwest Ethiopia. The serotype of FMD virus involved in the outbreaks was identified by antigen detection ELISA from clinical samples. Morbidity, mortality and economic impact of the outbreaks were assessed based on data collected from 738 smallholder farmers in a mixed crop-livestock (MCL) production system and from five dairy farms in the commercial dairy production system. The outbreaks were confirmed to be due to FMD virus serotype O. The animal level morbidity in clinically affected cattle herds was 68.1% for MCL production system and 54.5% for commercial dairy farms. The mortality in cattle in the MCL system was 0.4% and no mortality was recorded in the commercial dairy farms. The animal level morbidity in sheep and goats in the infected flocks was 35.7% but no mortality was seen in these species. The herd/flock level morbidity of FMD in outbreak affected kebeles of MCL system was 57.2% for cattle and 8% for sheep and goats. The economic losses due to milk loss, draught power loss, mortality and treatment cost were on average USD 34 (interquartile range: 9.4-44.4) per affected herd in the MCL system and this was statistically significantly lower than the USD 459.1 (interquartile range: 400.0-486.2) per affected farm in the commercial dairy farms (p < .05). These economic losses have significant impact in the livelihood and income of affected farmers in both production systems. Future work should focus on the implementation of control measures that mitigate the economic impact of the disease.

Management strategies for vaccinated animals after an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease and the impact on return to trade.

An incursion of Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in a previously FMD-free country can cause significant economic damage from immediate and prolonged closure of FMD-sensitive markets. Whilst emergency vaccination may help contain disease, the presence of vaccinated animals complicates post-outbreak management and the recovery of FMD-free status for return to trade. We present enhancements to the Australian Animal DISease (AADIS) model that allow comparisons of post-outbreak management strategies for vaccinated animals, for the purposes of securing the earliest possible return to trade. Two case studies are provided that compare the retention of vaccinated animals with removal for waste/salvage, and the impact on recovery of FMD-sensitive markets per OIE guidelines. It was found that a vaccinate-and-retain strategy was associated with lower post-outbreak management costs, however this advantage was outweighed by significantly higher trade losses. Under the assumptions of the study there was no cost advantage to salvaging the removed vaccinated animals.

Macroeconomic impact of foot-and-mouth disease vaccination strategies for an outbreak in the Midwestern United States: A computable general equilibrium.

The impacts of alternative responses to a hypothetical foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreak occurring in the Midwestern United States are estimated using the Regional Economic Modelling Incorporated Policy Insight + (REMI) computable general equilibrium model, with particular attention paid to the employment impact estimates. The impact on employment and GDP is estimated using forecasts of a 10-year period with disease outbreak duration up to 2 years. Fifteen different vaccination protocols are compared to a disease control protocol that relies on animal depopulation with no vaccination. Results show that over the 10-year study period, the strictly depopulation strategy that made no use of vaccination results in approximately 677,000 jobs lost with $47 billion GDP loss. Based on the analysis conducted, losses can be reduced through protocols that utilize vaccination strategies. Through a vaccinate-to-live strategy with the highest vaccination capacity and largest vaccination zone, savings can be as many as 509,000 jobs in comparison to the strategy that relies strictly on slaughter with no use of vaccination. By including detailed job losses by occupation, this study highlights the downstream employment effects and shows that job losses resulting from an FMD outbreak can go far beyond the farm sector impacts that have been reported in earlier studies. Understanding the impacts on employment by sector provides more actionable information than producer and consumer surplus estimates frequently reported in economic impact studies.

A review of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) testing in livestock with an emphasis on the use of alternative diagnostic specimens.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) remains an important pathogen of livestock more than 120 years after it was identified, with annual costs from production losses and vaccination estimated at €5.3-€17 billion (US$6.5-US$21 billion) in FMDV-endemic areas. Control and eradication are difficult because FMDV is highly contagious, genetically and antigenically diverse, infectious for a wide variety of species, able to establish subclinical carriers in ruminants, and widely geographically distributed. For early detection, sustained control, or eradication, sensitive and specific FMDV surveillance procedures compatible with high through-put testing platforms are required. At present, surveillance relies on the detection of FMDV-specific antibody or virus, most commonly in individual animal serum, vesicular fluid, or epithelial specimens. However, FMDV or antibody are also detectable in other body secretions and specimens, e.g., buccal and nasal secretions, respiratory exhalations (aerosols), mammary secretions, urine, feces, and environmental samples. These alternative specimens offer non-invasive diagnostic alternatives to individual animal sampling and the potential for more efficient, responsive, and cost-effective surveillance. Herein we review FMDV testing methods for contemporary and alternative diagnostic specimens and their application to FMDV surveillance in livestock (cattle, swine, sheep, and goats).

Tackling foot-and-mouth disease in eastern Africa.

Livestock are vital in eastern Africa for food security and livelihoods, but endemic foot-and-mouth disease is an issue. Here, Josh Loeb explains how new research could help.

Domestic water buffaloes: Access to surface water, disease prevalence and associated economic losses.

Given the shortage and non-availability of freshwater in Pakistan, wastewater is being used for bathing water buffaloes; however, this has a negative impact on animal welfare. Although there is a vast literature on indirect linkages between wastewater and animal productivity, studies focusing on the direct impacts of water buffaloes bathing in wastewater on animal productivity and economic losses are rare. Therefore, using 360 domestic water buffalo farms, this study examines the expenditure and production losses associated with bathing (in wastewater and freshwater) and non-bathing water buffaloes by employing partial budgeting and resource adjustment component techniques. Furthermore, it investigates the prevalence of animal diseases and associated economic effects using correlation analysis and propensity score matching techniques, respectively. The findings reveal that compared to their counterparts (freshwater bathing and non-bathing water buffaloes), buffaloes bathing in wastewater are at increased risk of clinical mastitis, foot and mouth disease (FMD) and tick infestation. Moreover, the use of wastewater for bathing buffaloes also leads to higher economic and production losses by affecting milk productivity, causing premature culling, and reducing slaughter value. The findings of the double-log model show that economic losses are higher if buffaloes bathe in wastewater within 30 min after milking, as there are more chances that those buffaloes would be exposed to bacterial penetration in the teat ducts, which may result in intramammary infection. According to the propensity score matching method, the higher economic damages per month are associated with buffaloes bathing in wastewater and freshwater, 155 and 110 USD per farm, respectively. The study findings reference the need for policies to restrict wastewater access by water buffaloes, and a regular check of and access to cool clean water wallows for bathing during hot summer days, to reduce excess heat and economic losses, and thus improve animal welfare.

The Effect of the Post 2001 Reforms on FMD Risks of the International Live Animal Trade.

The 2001 UK foot and mouth disease (FMD) epidemic marked a change in global FMD management, focusing less on trade isolation than on biosecurity within countries where FMD is endemic. Post 2001 policy calls for the isolation of disease-free zones in FMD-endemic countries, while increasing the opportunities for trade. The impact of the change on disease risk has yet to be tested. In this paper, we estimate an empirical model of disease risk that tests for the impact of trade volumes before and after 2001, controlling for biosecurity measures. In the pre 2001 regime, we find that poor biosecurity was associated with the probability of reporting an outbreak. In the post 2001 regime, the risks changed, with trade being a much greater source of risk. We discuss the trade-off between trade restrictions and biosecurity measures in the management of FMD disease risks.

Spatio-temporal patterns of foot-and-mouth disease transmission in cattle between 2007 and 2015 and quantitative assessment of the economic impact of the disease in Niger.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in Niger, with outbreaks occurring every year. Recently, there was an increasing interest from veterinary authorities to implement preventive and control measures against FMD. However, for an efficient control, improving the current knowledge on the disease dynamics and factors related to FMD occurrence is a prerequisite. The objective of this study was therefore to obtain insights into the incidence and the spatio-temporal patterns of transmission of FMD outbreaks in Niger based on the retrospective analysis of 9-year outbreak data. A regression tree analysis model was used to identify statistically significant predictors associated with FMD incidence, including the period (year and month), the location (region), the animal-contact density and the animal-contact frequency. This study provided also a first report on economic losses associated with FMD. From 2007 to 2015, 791 clinical FMD outbreaks were reported from the eight regions of Niger, with the number of outbreaks per region ranging from 5 to 309. The statistical analysis revealed that three regions (Dosso, Tillabery and Zinder), the months (September, corresponding to the end of rainy season, to December and January, i.e., during the dry and cold season), the years (2007 and 2015) and the density of contact were the main predictors of FMD occurrence. The quantitative assessment of the economic impacts showed that the average total cost of FMD at outbreak level was 499 euros, while the average price for FMD vaccination of one outbreak was estimated to be more than 314 euros. Despite some limitations of the clinical data used, this study will guide further research into the epidemiology of FMD in Niger and will promote a better understanding of the disease as well as an efficient control and prevention of FMD.

Financial Impact of Foot-and-mouth disease outbreaks on pig farms in the Republic of Korea, 2014/2015.

The financial impact of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) that occurred in 180 piggeries (100 farrow-to-finish and 80 fattening farms) confirmed infected during the 2014/2015 epidemic in the Republic of Korea was estimated at the farm level. The median loss due to slaughtering of pigs prior to their expected market weights was US$ 71.8 (uncovered compensation-compensation loss) plus US$ 57.3 (foregone net gain) per pig. Median loss per farm was US$ 27,487 (55.6% of total loss) for compensation and US$ 15,925 (44.4%) for foregone net gain. The total loss per farm (median, 25th-75th percentile) was US$ 43,822 (9,767-115,893), which represented 49.4% (11.5-112.8) of the annual net gain of pig farms. The total financial loss in 180 FMD outbreak pig farms was US$ 25.2 million, which was nearly one-half of the control cost (US$ 58.3 million) spent by the Korean government on this epidemic. The findings in this study should help planning to help reduce the impact at the farm level in the Republic of Korea in the future.

Impacts of Pathogen Introduction Risk on Importer Behavior and Gains from Trade in the Livestock Industry.

Trade eliminates geographic barriers, allowing for novel exchange of goods and services, but also creates pathways for the unintentional spread of infectious pathogens such as foot and mouth disease. In the absence of trade regulation, a producer's choice of import origin depends on relative prices and costs associated with trading partners. This paper develops a framework for exploring importer behavior in a non-regulated economy, allowing for price and risk heterogeneity among potential import sources. In the model, importers determine the risk of introducing foot and mouth disease to home soil and choose import volumes using risk and market data. When importers consider the possibility of unreported or undetected outbreaks, they choose to import from multiple sources to minimize risk and simultaneously create gains from trade over the regulated outcome. Our results have implications for the development of import and inspection policies that could be specifically designed to target highest risk imports of livestock.

An economic assessment of foot and mouth disease in Japan.

A large-scale foot and mouth disease (FMD) epidemic in Japan in 2010 caused severe economic losses for livestock and related industries. In this paper, the authors develop a clear and usable framework to estimate the economic impact of this FMD outbreak. An economic analysis is then conducted by combining this framework with an epidemiological model. The framework estimates the direct and indirect costs to livestock and related industries by applying an input-output model, as well as by addressing expenditure on disease control. The direct cost to the livestock industry was estimated at 51.2 billion Japanese yen (JPY), engendering an indirect cost to related industries of JPY 25.5 billion. The expenditure for disease control activities was estimated at JPY 8.2 billion. The total impact of the 2010 FMD epidemic was estimated at almost JPY 85 billion. Within the economic analysis, the authors evaluate several control measure scenarios: a baseline scenario, which assumes that the rapid disease spread observed in the early phase of the 2010 FMD epidemic would continue; prompt culling within 24 hours; early detection of the first case; and emergency vaccination within a radius of 10 km around the affected farms in either seven or 28 days. Prompt culling and early detection were superior from an economic point of view, reducing the total economic impact to 30% and 2% of that in the baseline scenario, respectively. Compared with these scenarios, vaccination was less cost effective. However, vaccination suppressed the speed of disease spread and shortened the duration of the epidemic, suggesting its potential effectiveness in curbing rapid disease spread in a densely populated area.

Une épizootie de fièvre aphteuse de grande envergure survenue au Japon en 2010 a entraîné de graves pertes économiques pour la filière de l'élevage et les secteurs connexes. Les auteurs proposent un cadre d'évaluation clair pour estimer l'impact économique de ce foyer de fièvre aphteuse. Ils effectuent ensuite une analyse économique dans laquelle ce cadre d'évaluation est relié à un modèle épidémiologique. Les coûts directs et indirects subis par la filière de l'élevage et par les secteurs connexes sont évalués dans ce cadre en appliquant un modèle entrées­sorties (input­output) et en prenant en compte les dépenses liées à la lutte contre la maladie. Le coût direct de la maladie pour la filière de l'élevage a été estimé à 51,2 milliards de yens japonais, auxquels s'ajoute le coût indirect pour les secteurs connexes estimé à 25,5 milliards de yens japonais. Les dépenses induites par la lutte contre la maladie s'élèvent à 8,2 milliards de yens japonais. L'impact total de l'épizootie de fièvre aphteuse de 2010 est estimé à près de 85 milliards de yens japonais. Dans leur analyse économique, les auteurs ont évalué plusieurs scénarios relatifs aux mesures de lutte appliquées : un scénario de base, qui suppose une propagation de la maladie au même rythme que durant la phase initiale de l'épidémie de 2010 ; l'abattage rapide des animaux en 24 heures ; la détection précoce du premier cas ; l'application de la vaccination d'urgence dans un périmètre de 10 km autour des exploitations affectées et dans un délai de sept ou de 28 jours. Par rapport au scénario de base, l'abattage rapide et la détection précoce sont les meilleurs scénarios du point de vue économique, réduisant l'impact économique total respectivement à 30 % et 2 % de celui du scénario de base. Comparativement à ces scénarios, la vaccination est la solution la moins efficiente économiquement. Néanmoins, la vaccination a freiné la propagation de la maladie et limité la durée de l'épidémie, ce qui laisse penser qu'elle permettrait d'infléchir la courbe de propagation de la maladie dans les zones à forte densité de bétail.

En 2010 se produjo en el Japón una epidemia de fiebre aftosa de grandes proporciones, que causó graves pérdidas económicas a la industria ganadera y demás sectores conexos. Los autores describen un método claro para estimar el impacto económico de dicho brote. Acto seguido, llevan a cabo un análisis económico combinando este método con un modelo epidemiológico. El método permite estimar los costos directos e indirectos que soportan la industria ganadera y demás sectores conexos aplicando un modelo de «insumoproducto ¼ (input­output) y teniendo también en cuenta los gastos ligados al control de la enfermedad. Según los cálculos, el costo directo para la industria ganadera fue de 51 200 millones de yenes japoneses y el costo indirecto para los sectores conexos fue de 25 500 millones de yenes. Se estimó que las actividades de lucha contra la enfermedad supusieron gastos por valor de 8 200 millones. En total, pues, según estas estimaciones, el impacto económico de la epidemia de fiebre aftosa de 2010 se cifra en casi 85 000 millones de yenes. Como parte del análisis económico, los autores evalúan varias hipótesis relativas a las medidas de control: una hipótesis básica, en la cual prosigue sin trabas la veloz propagación de la enfermedad observada en la primera fase de la epidemia de 2010; la rápida implantación, en un plazo de 24 horas, de medidas de sacrificio sanitario; la pronta detección del primer caso; y la vacunación de emergencia dentro de un radio de 10 km alrededor de las explotaciones afectadas, en un plazo de siete días o en un plazo de 28 días. Desde un punto de vista económico, el rápido sacrificio sanitario y la pronta detección ofrecían mejores resultados, pues reducían el impacto económico total hasta un 30% y un 2%, respectivamente, del registrado en la hipótesis básica. En comparación con esas dos hipótesis, la vacunación ofrecía menos eficacia en relación con el costo, aunque frenaba la rápida propagación de la enfermedad y abreviaba la epidemia, de donde se infiere que puede resultar eficaz para contener la rápida dispersión de la enfermedad en áreas densamente pobladas.

Animal health economics: an aid to decisionmaking on animal health interventions - case studies in the United States of America.

For animal disease events the outcomes and consequences often remain unclear or uncertain, including the expected changes in benefits (e.g. profit to firms, prices to consumers) and in costs (e.g. response, clean-up). Moreover, the measurement of changes in benefits and costs across alternative interventions used to control animal disease events may be inexact. For instance, the economic consequences of alternative vaccination strategies to mitigate a disease can vary in magnitude due to trade embargoes and other factors. The authors discuss the economic measurement of animal disease outbreaks and interventions and how measurement is used in private and public decision-making. Two illustrative case studies in the United States of America are provided: a hypothetical outbreak of foot and mouth disease in cattle, and the 2014-2015 outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza in poultry.

Lors d'un événement sanitaire, les résultats et les conséquences d'une intervention sont souvent incertains ou imprécis, y compris pour ce qui concerne l'évolution attendue des bénéfices (par ex. le profit pour les entreprises ou le prix payé par le consommateur) et des coûts (par ex. le coût de la réponse ou de l'assainissement). De plus, la mesure de l'évolution des bénéfices et des coûts suivant les différentes interventions utilisées pour lutter contre les maladies animales peut s'avérer inexacte. Par exemple, les conséquences économiques de différentes stratégies de vaccination visant à atténuer l'impact d'une maladie peuvent varier en ordre de grandeur du fait des restrictions imposées au commerce suite à la vaccination, ou d'autres facteurs. Les auteurs examinent l'évaluation économique des foyers de maladies animales et des interventions sanitaires ainsi que l'utilisation de ces évaluations dans les prises de décision du secteur privé et public. L'analyse est illustrée par deux études de cas aux États- Unis d'Amérique : l'hypothèse d'un foyer de fièvre aphteuse survenant dans la population bovine, et le foyer d'influenza aviaire hautement pathogène survenu en 2014­2015 chez les volailles.

A menudo los resultados o efectos de ciertos episodios zoosanitarios quedan poco claros o generan incertidumbre, por ejemplo sobre el modo en que en principio modifican los beneficios (réditos para las empresas, precios para el consumidor) y los costos (p.ej. de respuesta o de saneamiento de la explotación). Además, la medición de los cambios que experimenten los costos y beneficios a resultas de distintas intervenciones posibles para combatir un episodio zoosanitario puede resultar inexacta. Por ejemplo: las consecuencias económicas de estrategias alternativas de vacunación para mitigar una enfermedad pueden ser de magnitud variable dependiendo de la existencia de embargos comerciales u otros factores. Los autores examinan la cuantificación económica de los brotes de enfermedades animales y las intervenciones para combatirlos y explican cómo se utilizan esas mediciones para tomar decisiones en los sectores público y privado, ofreciendo como ejemplo casos situados en los Estados Unidos de América: un brote hipotético de fiebre aftosa en el ganado vacuno y el brote de influenza aviar altamente patógena que en 2014 y 2015 afectó a las aves de corral.

Quantifying the Value of Perfect Information in Emergency Vaccination Campaigns.

Foot-and-mouth disease outbreaks in non-endemic countries can lead to large economic costs and livestock losses but the use of vaccination has been contentious, partly due to uncertainty about emergency FMD vaccination. Value of information methods can be applied to disease outbreak problems such as FMD in order to investigate the performance improvement from resolving uncertainties. Here we calculate the expected value of resolving uncertainty about vaccine efficacy, time delay to immunity after vaccination and daily vaccination capacity for a hypothetical FMD outbreak in the UK. If it were possible to resolve all uncertainty prior to the introduction of control, we could expect savings of £55 million in outbreak cost, 221,900 livestock culled and 4.3 days of outbreak duration. All vaccination strategies were found to be preferable to a culling only strategy. However, the optimal vaccination radius was found to be highly dependent upon vaccination capacity for all management objectives. We calculate that by resolving the uncertainty surrounding vaccination capacity we would expect to return over 85% of the above savings, regardless of management objective. It may be possible to resolve uncertainty about daily vaccination capacity before an outbreak, and this would enable decision makers to select the optimal control action via careful contingency planning.

Foot-and-Mouth Disease Impact on Smallholders - What Do We Know, What Don't We Know and How Can We Find Out More?

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) endemic regions contain three-quarters of the world's FMD susceptible livestock and most of the world's poor livestock keepers. Yet FMD impact on smallholders in these regions is poorly understood. Diseases of low mortality can exert a large impact if incidence is high. Modelling and field studies commonly find high FMD incidence in endemic countries. Sero-surveys typically find a third of young cattle are sero-positive, however, the proportion of sero-positive animals that developed disease, and resulting impact, are unknown. The few smallholder FMD impact studies that have been performed assessed different aspects of impact, using different approaches. They find that FMD impact can be high (>10% of annual household income). However, impact is highly variable, being a function of FMD incidence and dependency on activities affected by FMD. FMD restricts investment in productive but less FMD-resilient farming methods, however, other barriers to efficient production may exist, reducing the benefits of FMD control. Applying control measures is costly and can have wide-reaching negative impacts; veterinary-cordon-fences may damage wildlife populations, and livestock movement restrictions and trade bans damage farmer profits and the wider economy. When control measures are ineffective, farmers, society and wildlife may experience the burden of control without reducing disease burden. Foot-and-mouth disease control has benefitted smallholders in South America and elsewhere. Success takes decades of regional cooperation with effective veterinary services and widespread farmer participation. However, both the likelihood of success and the full cost of control measures must be considered. Controlling FMD in smallholder systems is challenging, particularly when movement restrictions are hard to enforce. In parts of Africa this is compounded by endemically infected wildlife and limited vaccine performance. This paper reviews FMD impact on smallholders in endemic countries. Significant evidence gaps exist and guidance on the design of FMD impact studies is provided.

Farm Community Impacts of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Outbreaks in Cattle and Buffaloes in Karnataka State, India.

This study was conducted to assess the impact of Foot-and-mouth Disease (FMD) outbreak in cattle and buffaloes on farming community in Kolar district, Karnataka state, India. Primary data were collected using pre-tested schedule from 178 sample farms using multistage random cluster sample technique. The results revealed that 78% of surveyed villages were affected with FMD. The FMD incidence risk was high across the herd sizes, whereas the mortality risk was high in small herds. In indigenous cattle, the highest loss due to FMD was distress sale (208 USD) followed by other losses, whereas, in Crossbred cattle, the highest loss was mortality loss (515 USD) followed by distress sale (490 USD), milk yield loss (327 USD), treatment cost (38 USD) and extra labour engagement expenses for nursing of FMD-affected bovines (30 USD). In local and upgraded buffaloes, the mean total loss per affected animal was 440 USD and 513 USD, respectively. A very high variability in the loss per animal was observed across the type of losses in the Crossbred cattle, and it may be due to differences in age of the FMD-infected animal, value of the animal, milking stage, lactation levels, herd sizes and labour engagement levels, etc. In local and upgraded buffaloes, the mean total loss per animal was 639 USD and 1008 USD, respectively. The sensitivity analysis for 5% change in price revealed that the mean total loss per animal was positively correlated with price. Further, the social impact elicitation revealed that majority of the livestock owners perceived FMD had caused permanent asset loss, which in turn increased psychological stress of the family. The estimated losses and social impact due to FMD signify the importance of the intervention to control the disease and thus socio-economic gain to the farmer and society at large.