Xanthotoxol relieves itch in mice via suppressing spinal GRP/GRPR signaling.

Although pruritus, commonly known as itch, is a common and debilitating symptom associated with various skin conditions, there is a lack of effective therapies available. Xanthotoxol (XAN), a biologically active linear furocoumarin, shows potential in the treatment of various neurological disorders. In this study, we discovered that administering XAN either through intraperitoneal or intrathecal injections effectively reduced scratching behavior induced by compound 48/80 or chloroquine. Importantly, XAN also substantially alleviates chronic itch in dry skin and allergic contact dermatitis mice. Substantial progress has highlighted the crucial role of gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP)-gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR) signaling in the dorsal spinal cord in transmitting various types of itch. Our behavior tests revealed that XAN significantly alleviated scratching behaviors induced by intrathecal administration of GRP or GRPR agonist bombesin. Furthermore, XAN reduced the activation of neurons in the spinal cord caused by intrathecal administration of GRP in mice. Moreover, XAN attenuates the activation of spinal GRPR-positive neurons in itchy mice. These findings suggest that XAN mitigates itch in mice by suppressing spinal GRP/GRPR signaling, thereby establishing XAN as a promising therapeutic option for treating pruritus.

Neuropeptidergic control circuits in the spinal cord for male sexual behaviour: Oxytocin-gastrin-releasing peptide systems.

The neuropeptidergic mechanisms controlling socio-sexual behaviours consist of complex neuronal circuitry systems in widely distributed areas of the brain and spinal cord. At the organismal level, it is now becoming clear that "hormonal regulations" play an important role, in addition to the activation of neuronal circuits. The gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) system in the lumbosacral spinal cord is an important component of the neural circuits that control penile reflexes in rats, circuits that are commonly referred to as the "spinal ejaculation generator (SEG)." Oxytocin, long known as a neurohypophyseal hormone, is now known to be involved in the regulation of socio-sexual behaviors in mammals, ranging from social bonding to empathy. However, the functional interaction between the SEG neurons and the hypothalamo-spinal oxytocin system remains unclear. Oxytocin is known to be synthesised mainly in hypothalamic neurons and released from the posterior pituitary into the circulation. Oxytocin is also released from the dendrites of the neurons into the hypothalamus where they have important roles in social behaviours via non-synaptic volume transmission. Because the most familiar functions of oxytocin are to regulate female reproductive functions including parturition, milk ejection, and maternal behaviour, oxytocin is often thought of as a "feminine" hormone. However, there is evidence that a group of parvocellular oxytocin neurons project to the lower spinal cord and control male sexual function in rats. In this report, we review the functional interaction between the SEG neurons and the hypothalamo-spinal oxytocin system and effects of these neuropeptides on male sexual behaviour. Furthermore, we discuss the finding of a recently identified, localised "volume transmission" role of oxytocin in the spinal cord. Findings from our studies suggest that the newly discovered "oxytocin-mediated spinal control of male sexual function" may be useful in the treatment of erectile and ejaculatory dysfunction.

Characterization of the expression of gastrin-releasing peptide and its receptor in the trigeminal and spinal somatosensory systems of Japanese macaque monkeys: Insight into humans.

Gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) and its receptor (GRPR) have been identified as itch mediators in the spinal and trigeminal somatosensory systems in rodents. In primates, there are few reports of GRP/GRPR expression or function in the spinal sensory system and virtually nothing is known in the trigeminal system. The aim of the present study was to characterize GRP and GRPR in the trigeminal and spinal somatosensory system of Japanese macaque monkeys (Macaca fuscata). cDNA encoding GRP was isolated from the macaque dorsal root ganglion (DRG) and exhibited an amino acid sequence that was highly conserved among mammals and especially in primates. Immunohistochemical analysis demonstrated that GRP was expressed mainly in the small-sized trigeminal ganglion and DRG in adult macaque monkeys. Densely stained GRP-immunoreactive (ir) fibers were observed in superficial layers of the spinal trigeminal nucleus caudalis (Sp5C) and the spinal cord. In contrast, GRP-ir fibers were rarely observed in the principal sensory trigeminal nucleus and oral and interpolar divisions of the spinal trigeminal nucleus. cDNA cloning, in situ hybridization, and Western blot revealed substantial expression of GRPR mRNA and GRPR protein in the macaque spinal dorsal horn and Sp5C. Our Western ligand blot and ligand derivative stain for GRPR revealed that GRP directly bound in the macaque Sp5C and spinal dorsal horn as reported in rodents. Finally, GRP-ir fibers were also detected in the human spinal dorsal horn. The spinal and trigeminal itch neural circuits labeled with GRP and GRPR appear to function also in primates.

Chemogenetic activation of central gastrin-releasing peptide-expressing neurons elicits itch-related scratching behavior in male and female mice.

Several lines of evidence have clarified that the key transmission pathways of itching sensation travel from the periphery to the central nervous system (CNS). Despite the functional significance of gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) and its cognate receptor in the itch processing mechanism in the spinal dorsal horn (SDH), the roles of GRP-expressing (GRP+ ) neurons in different regions remain unclear. This study aimed to determine whether GRP+ neurons in the CNS directly modulated itch processing. To specifically activate spinal and supraspinal GRP neurons by the designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADDs) system, CAG-LSL-Gq-DREADD mice were crossed with GRP-Cre mice, resulting in the development of GRP-hM3Dq mice. Immunohistochemistry showed that hM3Dq was highly expressed in the SDH and brainstem closely related to sensory processing. The intraperitoneal, intrathecal, or intracerebroventricular administration of clozapine-N-oxide, an agonist of hM3Dq, strongly elicited dermatome-dependent itch-related scratching behavior, but did not change pain sensitivity. Importantly, GRP-Gq-DREADD-mediated scratching behavior in GRP-hM3Dq mice was not affected by the ablation of transient receptor potential vanilloid 1+ sensory C-fibers, and it was also observed to a similar degree under chronic itch conditions. Furthermore, there were no significant sex differences in the scratching behavior elicited by GRP-Gq-DREADD, suggesting that itch-dominant roles of central GRP+ neurons might be common in both sexes, at least under normal physiological conditions. These novel findings not only contribute to understanding the functional roles of central GRP+ neurons further, but also propose the development of future effective therapeutics for intractable itching.

Imaging the Distribution of Gastrin-Releasing Peptide Receptors in Cancer.

Targeting tumor-expressed receptors using selective molecules for diagnostic, therapeutic, or both diagnostic and therapeutic (theragnostic) purposes is a promising approach in oncologic applications. Such approaches have increased significantly over the past decade. Peptides such as gastrin-releasing peptide receptors targeting radiopharmaceuticals are small molecules with fast blood clearance and urinary excretion. They demonstrate good tissue diffusion, low immunogenicity, and highly selective binding to their target cell-surface receptors. They are also easily produced. Gastrin-releasing peptide receptors, part of the bombesin family, are overexpressed in many tumors, including breast and prostate cancer, and therefore represent an attractive target for future development.

Gastrin releasing peptide-induced satiety is associated with hypothalamic and brainstem changes in chicks.

Gastrin releasing peptide (GRP) is involved in the stimulation of gastric acid release from the stomach. It also mediates effects on feeding behavior. It is associated with anorexigenic effects in both mammalian and avian species, but the mechanism of action is unknown in any species. The aim of the present study was thus to investigate the hypothalamic and brainstem mechanisms mediating GRP-induced satiety in chicks. In Experiment 1, chicks that received intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection of GRP reduced food intake for up to 150 min following injection and reduced water intake up to 120 min following injection. In Experiment 2, chicks that were food restricted following GRP injection did not reduce water intake. Alimentary canal transit time was not affected by GRP in Experiment 3. A behavior analysis was conducted in Experiment 4, revealing that GRP-treated chicks reduced feeding pecks. In Experiment 5, GRP-treated chicks had increased c-Fos immunoreactivity in the lateral hypothalamus, paraventricular nucleus, and arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus, and the nucleus of the solitary tract. Collectively, these results demonstrate that central GRP causes anorexigenic effects that are associated with hypothalamic changes without affecting other behaviors.

Dorsal Horn Gastrin-Releasing Peptide Expressing Neurons Transmit Spinal Itch But Not Pain Signals.

Gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) is a spinal itch transmitter expressed by a small population of dorsal horn interneurons (GRP neurons). The contribution of these neurons to spinal itch relay is still only incompletely understood, and their potential contribution to pain-related behaviors remains controversial. Here, we have addressed this question in a series of experiments performed in GRP::cre and GRP::eGFP transgenic male mice. We combined behavioral tests with neuronal circuit tracing, morphology, chemogenetics, optogenetics, and electrophysiology to obtain a more comprehensive picture. We found that GRP neurons form a rather homogeneous population of central cell-like excitatory neurons located in lamina II of the superficial dorsal horn. Multicolor high-resolution confocal microscopy and optogenetic experiments demonstrated that GRP neurons receive direct input from MrgprA3-positive pruritoceptors. Anterograde HSV-based neuronal tracing initiated from GRP neurons revealed ascending polysynaptic projections to distinct areas and nuclei in the brainstem, midbrain, thalamus, and the somatosensory cortex. Spinally restricted ablation of GRP neurons reduced itch-related behaviors to different pruritogens, whereas their chemogenetic excitation elicited itch-like behaviors and facilitated responses to several pruritogens. By contrast, responses to painful stimuli remained unaltered. These data confirm a critical role of dorsal horn GRP neurons in spinal itch transmission but do not support a role in pain.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Dorsal horn gastrin-releasing peptide neurons serve a well-established function in the spinal transmission of pruritic (itch) signals. A potential role in the transmission of nociceptive (pain) signals has remained controversial. Our results provide further support for a critical role of dorsal horn gastrin-releasing peptide neurons in itch circuits, but we failed to find evidence supporting a role in pain.

Effects of Gastrin-releasing Peptide on Hippocampal Neural Networks in Vascular Dementia Rats.

Gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) has been confirmed to exhibit a variety of physiological functions in the brain and play a role in many neurological diseases. Our previous research found that GRP could restore the impaired synaptic plasticity and the spatial learning and memory impairments induced by vascular dementia (VD). However, the specific mechanisms of GRP affecting hippocampus, especially the effects on the neuronal oscillations were still poorly understood. In this study, we examined the effects of GRP on the changes of the interactions between theta and gamma oscillations in the hippocampal CA3-CA1 pathway of VD rats and explored the potential electrophysiological mechanism. To this purpose, local field potentials (LFPs) simultaneously collected from hippocampal CA3 and CA1 were measured by the power spectrum, phase synchronization, phase-phase coupling (PPC) and phase-amplitude coupling (PAC). We found that GRP substantially restored the phase synchronization of the theta and gamma oscillations. The GRP also significantly improved the strength of theta-gamma cross-frequency coupling (including theta-gamma PPC and theta-gamma PAC) in the CA3-CA1 network. The results indicated that GRP could alleviate the changes of neural activities in hippocampal CA3-CA1 pathway induced by VD. This might be an electrophysiological mechanism for GRP preventing cognitive impairments induced by VD.

Recent insights into biological functions of mammalian bombesin-like peptides and their receptors.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The current review highlights recent advances in physiological and pharmacological researches in biology of mammalian bombesin-like peptides (BLPs). RECENT FINDINGS: BLPs and their receptors were found to have regulatory roles in many biological processes in central nervous system. Two BLPs, neuromedin B and gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), and their receptors are required for regulation of basal and induced sighing activity in rodents. This is the first study demonstrating central pathways involved in regulation of sighing activity. GRP receptor (GRPR) expressing neurons are excitatory glutamatergic interneurons located in the dorsal lamina without projections outside the spinal cord and mediate itch signals via vesicular glutamate transporter 2. Those neurons receive itch signals and make synapses with the parabrachial nucleus projecting spinal neurons to transmit itch signals to parabrachial nucleus. GRP expressing interneurons function in a proposed 'leaky gate model' to interpret the mechanism of both pain and itch transmission. In addition to recent advances of biology in nervous system, BLPs and their receptors were found to play potential regulatory roles in innate and adaptive immune responses and tissue development. SUMMARY: Several important biological roles of BLPs and their receptors in nervous system were identified. Together with researches regarding central roles of BLPs, studies revealing the regulatory roles of BLPs and their receptors in immunology and tissue development provide us with novel insights into understanding of the biology of BLPs and their receptors.

Molecular and neural basis of contagious itch behavior in mice.

Socially contagious itch is ubiquitous in human society, but whether it exists in rodents is unclear. Using a behavioral paradigm that does not entail prior training or reward, we found that mice scratched after observing a conspecific scratching. Molecular mapping showed increased neuronal activity in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus of mice that displayed contagious scratching. Ablation of gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR) or GRPR neurons in the SCN abolished contagious scratching behavior, which was recapitulated by chemogenetic inhibition of SCN GRP neurons. Activation of SCN GRP/GRPR neurons evoked scratching behavior. These data demonstrate that GRP-GRPR signaling is necessary and sufficient for transmitting contagious itch information in the SCN. The findings may have implications for our understanding of neural circuits that control socially contagious behaviors.

Electrophysiological properties of brain-natriuretic peptide- and gastrin-releasing peptide-responsive dorsal horn neurons in spinal itch transmission.

Spinal itch transmission has been reported to be mediated by at least two neuronal populations in spinal dorsal horn, neurons expressing brain-natriuretic peptide (BNP) receptor (Npra) and gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) receptor (GRPR). Although Npra-expressing neurons were shown to be upstream of GRPR- expressing neurons in spinal itch transmission, the roles of BNP and GRP in the spinal neurotransmission of histamine-dependent and -independent itch remains unclear. Using in vivo electrophysiology and behavior analysis, this study examined the responses of chloroquine (histamine-independent pruritogen)-responsive and histamine-responsive dorsal horn neurons to spinal applications of BNP and GRP. Electrophysiologically, 9.5% of chloroquine-responsive neurons responded to BNP, 33.3% to GRP, and 4.8% to both, indicating that almost half of chloroquine-responsive neurons were unresponsive to both BNP and GRP. In contrast, histamine-responsive neurons did not respond to spinal BNP application, whereas 30% responded to spinal GRP application, indicating that 70% of histamine-responsive neurons were unresponsive to both BNP and GRP. Behavioral analyses showed differences in the time-course and frequency of scratching responses evoked by intrathecal BNP and GRP. These findings provide evidence that most BNP-Npra and GRP-GRPR signaling involve different pathways of spinal itch transmission, and that multiple neurotransmitters, in addition to BNP and GRP, are involved in spinal itch transmission. The electrophysiological results also suggest that spinal BNP contributes little to histaminergic itch directly.

Spinal Functions of B-Type Natriuretic Peptide, Gastrin-Releasing Peptide, and Their Cognate Receptors for Regulating Itch in Mice.

B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP)-natriuretic peptide receptor A (NPRA) and gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP)-GRP receptor (GRPR) systems contribute to spinal processing of itch. However, pharmacological and anatomic evidence of these two spinal ligand-receptor systems are still not clear. The aim of this study was to determine the spinal functions of BNP-NPRA and GRP-GRPR systems for regulating scratching activities in mice by using pharmacological and immunohistochemical approaches. Our results showed that intrathecal administration of BNP (0.3-3 nmol) dose dependently elicited scratching responses, which could be blocked by the NPRA antagonist (Arg6,ß-cyclohexyl-Ala8,D-Tic16,Arg17,Cys18)-atrial natriuretic factor(6-18) amide (A71915). However, A71915 had no effect on intrathecal GRP-induced scratching. In contrast, pretreatment with a GRPR antagonist (D-Tpi6,Leu13ψ(CH2-NH)-Leu14)bombesin(6-14) (RC-3095) inhibited BNP-induced scratching. Immunostaining revealed that NPRA proteins colocalize with GRP, but not GRPR, in the superficial area of dorsal horn, whereas BNP proteins do not colocalize with either GRP or GRPR in the dorsal horn. Intradermal administration of ligands including endothelin-1, U-46619, bovine adrenal medulla 8-22, and Ser-Leu-Ile-Gly-Arg-Leu-NH2 (SLIGRL) increased scratching bouts at different levels of magnitude. Pretreatment with intrathecal A71915 did not affect scratching responses elicited by all four pruritogens, whereas pretreatment with RC-3095 only inhibited SLIGRL-induced scratching. Interestingly, immunostaining showed that RC-3095, but not A71915, inhibited SLIGRL-elicited c-Fos activation in the spinal dorsal horn, which was in line with behavioral outcomes. These findings demonstrate that: 1) BNP-NPRA system may function upstream of the GRP-GRPR system to regulate itch in the mouse spinal cord, and 2) both NPRA and GRPR antagonists may have antipruritic efficacy against centrally, but not peripherally, elicited itch.

Gastrin-releasing peptide expression and its effect on the calcification of developing mouse incisor.

Gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) is considered to be one of the cancer growth factors. This peptide's receptor (GRPR) is known as a G protein-coupled receptor, regulating intracellular calcium storage and releasing signals. This study is the first to investigate the function of GRP during mouse incisor development. We hypothesized that GRP is one of the factors that affects the regulation of calcification during tooth development. To verify the expression pattern of GRP, in situ hybridization was processed during incisor development. GRP was expressed at the late bell stage and hard tissue formation stage in the epithelial tissue. To identify the genuine function of GRP during incisor development, a gain-of-function analysis was performed. After GRP overexpression in culture, the phenotype of ameloblasts, odontoblasts and predentin was altered compared to control group. Moreover, enamel and dentin thickness was increased after renal capsule transplantation of GRP-overexpressed incisors. With these results, we suggest that GRP plays a significant role in the formation of enamel and dentin by regulating ameloblasts and predentin formation, respectively. Thus, GRP signaling is strongly related to calcium acquisition and secretion during mouse incisor development.

STAT3-dependent reactive astrogliosis in the spinal dorsal horn underlies chronic itch.

Chronic itch is an intractable symptom of inflammatory skin diseases, such as atopic and contact dermatitis. Recent studies have revealed neuronal pathways selective for itch, but the mechanisms by which itch turns into a pathological chronic state are poorly understood. Using mouse models of atopic and contact dermatitis, we demonstrate a long-term reactive state of astrocytes in the dorsal horn of the spinal segments that corresponds to lesioned, itchy skin. We found that reactive astrogliosis depended on the activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3). Conditional disruption of astrocytic STAT3 suppressed chronic itch, and pharmacological inhibition of spinal STAT3 ameliorated the fully developed chronic itch. Mice with atopic dermatitis exhibited an increase in scratching elicited by intrathecal administration of the itch-inducer gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), and this enhancement was normalized by suppressing STAT3-mediated reactive astrogliosis. Moreover, we identified lipocalin-2 (LCN2) as an astrocytic STAT3-dependent upregulated factor that was crucial for chronic itch, and we demonstrated that intrathecal administration of LCN2 to normal mice increased spinal GRP-evoked scratching. Our findings indicate that STAT3-dependent reactive astrocytes act as critical amplifiers of itching through a mechanism involving the enhancement of spinal itch signals by LCN2, thereby providing a previously unrecognized target for treating chronic itch.

Bombesin-like peptides and their receptors: recent findings in pharmacology and physiology.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: To highlight the research progress of roles of bombesin-like peptides and their receptors in pharmacology and physiology. RECENT FINDINGS: Several new bombesin-derived radioactive or nonradioactive compounds were designed for the diagnosis and therapy of tumors that are overexpressing bombesin receptors. Both gastrin-releasing peptide receptor and neuromedin B receptor activation were shown to induce membrane depolarization and excite neurons in brain. Bombesin receptor subtype-3 was found to be downregulated in the muscle cells and myocytes from obese and type 2 diabetes patients, and its relevant cell signaling events in glucose homeostasis were also investigated. The molecular events triggered by bombesin receptors activation in different types of malignancies is being explored recently and new clues were provided for a better understanding of the biological roles of abnormal expression of bombesin receptors in tumors. Novel cross-talk between gastrin-releasing peptide receptor cell signaling and Sonic hedgehog pathways was identified in small-cell lung carcinoma. SUMMARY: Increasing evidence shows bombesin-like peptides and their receptors play important roles in both physiological state and diseases. More specific and safe tumor targeting Bombesin derivatives are being developed for tumor diagnosis and therapy.

[Spinal gastrin-releasing peptide system mediates sexual function of males: advances in studies].

A collection of neurons in the upper lumbar spinal cord (lumbar segments 3 and 4) of male rats project to the lower lumbar spinal cord (lumbar segments 5 and 6) and release a gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) to the somatic and autonomic regions, which are known to regulate male sexual reflexes. The GRP plays some special functions when bound to the specific GRP receptor (GRPR). The spinal GRP system is regulated by androgens. Accumulating evidence shows that GRP plays an important role in rat penile erection and ejaculation, and pharmacological stimulation of GRPRs with a specific agonist can restore penile reflexes and ejaculation in castrated male rats. Therefore, the GRP system appears to be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of erectile dysfunction or ejaculatory dysfunction. The present paper briefly reviews the recent studies on the role of the spinal GRP system in regulating the sexual function of males.

Endocrine regulation of airway contractility is overlooked.

Asthma is a prevalent respiratory disorder triggered by a variety of inhaled environmental factors, such as allergens, viruses, and pollutants. Asthma is characterized by an elevated activation of the smooth muscle surrounding the airways, as well as a propensity of the airways to narrow excessively in response to a spasmogen (i.e. contractile agonist), a feature called airway hyperresponsiveness. The level of airway smooth muscle (ASM) activation is putatively controlled by mediators released in its vicinity. In asthma, many mediators that affect ASM contractility originate from inflammatory cells that are mobilized into the airways, such as eosinophils. However, mounting evidence indicates that mediators released by remote organs can also influence the level of activation of ASM, as well as its level of responsiveness to spasmogens and relaxant agonists. These remote mediators are transported through circulating blood to act either directly on ASM or indirectly via the nervous system by tuning the level of cholinergic activation of ASM. Indeed, mediators generated from diverse organs, including the adrenals, pancreas, adipose tissue, gonads, heart, intestines, and stomach, affect the contractility of ASM. Together, these results suggest that, apart from a paracrine mode of regulation, ASM is subjected to an endocrine mode of regulation. The results also imply that defects in organs other than the lungs can contribute to asthma symptoms and severity. In this review, I suggest that the endocrine mode of regulation of ASM contractility is overlooked.

The stomach and/or upper duodenum contain sites of action that control meal size and intermeal interval length by exogenous rat gastrin releasing peptide.

The site(s) of action that control the reduction of food intake in response to the amphibian skin peptide bombesin (Bn) has been determined to be the area supplied by the celiac artery (CA), i.e., the stomach and the upper duodenum. Here, we investigated the gastrointestinal site(s) of action which controls meal size (MS) (normal rat chow) and intermeal interval length (IMI) by the mammalian homologues of Bn gastrin releasing peptides (GRP-10, GRP-27 and GRP-29, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.5 nmol/kg) infused in the CA, the cranial mesenteric artery (CMA, supplying the small and large intestine), the femoral artery (FA, control) and the portal vein (PV, draining the gastrointestinal tract, control) in freely fed rats immediately prior to the onset of the dark cycle. We found that (1) GRP-29 (0.05, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.5 nmol/kg) and GRP-27 (0.2 and 0.5 nmol/kg) in the CA and GRP-29 (0.5 nmol/kg) in the CMA reduced the MS relative to saline, (2) GRP-29 (0.1, 0.2 and 0.5 nmol/kg) and GRP-27 (0.2 and 0.5 nmol/kg) in the CA prolonged the IMI, (3) GRP-29 (0.1, 0.2 and 0.5 nmol/kg) in the CA and GRP-29 (0.5 nmol/kg) in the CMA increased the satiety ratio (SR, IMI/MS - the amount of food consumed per a given unit of time) and (4) neither peptide nor route showed any effect on the second MS. These results support an upper gastrointestinal site of action for MS and IMI length by GRP-27 and GRP-29, which is most likely the stomach and/or the duodenum.

Gastrin-releasing peptide receptor signaling in the integration of stress and memory.

Neuropeptides act as signaling molecules that regulate a range of aspects of brain function. Gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) is a 27-amino acid mammalian neuropeptide, homolog of the amphibian peptide bombesin. GRP acts by binding to the GRP receptor (GRPR, also called BB2), a member of the G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) superfamily. GRP produced by neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) plays a role in synaptic transmission by activating GRPRs located on postsynaptic membranes, influencing several aspects of brain function. Here we review the role of GRP/GRPR as a system mediating both stress responses and the formation and expression of memories for fearful events. GRPR signaling might integrate the processing of stress and fear with synaptic plasticity and memory, serving as an important component of the set of neurobiological systems underlying the enhancement of memory storage by aversive information.

Phase delays to light and gastrin-releasing peptide require the protein kinase A pathway.

Daily photic resetting of the circadian system relies on the transmission of light information from the retina to retinorecipient cells within the ventrolateral suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) core, and subsequent activation of rhythmic clock cells in the dorsolateral region. Some neurochemicals such as gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) mimic the phase shifting effects of light and induce Ca(2+)-dependent gene expression in the SCN. Activation of the cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB) is necessary for Ca(2+)-dependent transcription to occur and accompanies behavioral phase shifting; however, several biochemical cascades are involved in this phenomenon. One pathway that has been implicated in photic responses involves protein kinase A (PKA). It is not known if this pathway participates in mediating phase shifts to GRP. Here we show that preventing PKA activation attenuates both light- and GRP-induced phase shifts in locomotor behavior, but only during the early-subjective night. This finding demonstrates that activation of PKA is an important component in the photic signaling pathway and may mediate GRP output signaling from the SCN core to the shell; however, this effect appears to be temporally dependent.