Temporal and spatial spread of Hypoderma actaeon infection in roe deer from peninsular Spain determined by an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

The host switching of Hypoderma actaeon (Diptera: Oestridae), a specific parasite of red deer (Cervus elaphus), towards roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) has been recently reported in Spain. To provide information about the temporal and spatial spreading of H. actaeon infection in roe deer, 244 serum samples from animals hunted in Spain between 2013 and 2018 were analysed by an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The overall seropositivity was 13.9%. Seropositivity was higher in continental (27.7%) and mountainous (12%) areas from central Spain, followed by southern-Mediterranean (11.2%) and northern-oceanic regions (3.5%). Differences were significant between central-continental and northern-oceanic regions (P = 0.003). No differences were found according to the sex and age of roe deer (P > 0.05). In 2013, all seropositive animals were concentrated in two distant areas in central and southern Spain, suggesting that the host switch could have occurred independently in both regions. Changes in the pattern of distribution of red deer and roe deer could have favoured the spreading of this myiasis towards roe deer, indicating that roe deer may become infested by H. actaeon in areas where both cervids coexist at high densities.

Molecular Characterization and Chronobiology of Hypodermosis in Cattle Slaughtered in the Diyarbakir Province of Turkey.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of present study was to investigate the chronobiology and identification of Hypoderma species in cattle slaughtered in the Diyarbakir Province of Turkey. METHODS: In total, 736 hides and subcutaneous tissue of slaughtered cattle were examined for the presence of second- and third-instar larvae in the slaughterhouse between November 2012 and May 2013. Third-instar larvae were collected from the slaughterhouses, and gDNA isolates were examined by PCR-RFLP analysis of the cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) gene of mt-DNA using TaqI enzyme. RESULTS: In total, 62 out of 736 cattle (8.42%) were found to be positive for Hypoderma larvae. A total of 328 (90 second- and 238 third-instar) Hypoderma larvae were detected in the hide and subcutaneous tissue of the back of infested cattle. All the 238 third-instar larvae (100%) were identified as H. bovis by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis. The mean number of Hypoderma larvae in each cow was 5.29% (62/736). In the examined cattle, second-instar larvae were observed starting from the second week of January and subcutaneous nodules were found until the last week of April. CONCLUSION: H. bovis was the dominant species detected in the Diyarbakir Province.

A 4-years monitoring of Hypoderma diana in horses from the Czech Republic.

The occurrence of Hypoderma diana (Diptera: Hypodermatidae) in a herd of 15 horses was observed during a 4-year period (2010-2013) in northwest Bohemia. During this period, infestation by the warble fly H. diana increased from 12.5% in 2010 to 53.3% in 2013. Nodules were observed on the neck, back, stomach, legs, and head. The incidence of H. diana was probably influenced by the presence of a specific host mouflon (Ovis orientalis musimon).

Studies on the biology, chemotherapy and distribution of warble fly in Pakistan.

This paper presents data on the prevalence, biology and control of warble fly infestation (WFI) in cattle and goats in Pakistan. A questionnaire for obtaining information on biology and prevalence was circulated amongst field veterinary staff and livestock farmers in all five provinces (Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [KPK] and Gilgit-Baltistan) and in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas of the country. A total of 1,019 questionnaires were received (Punjab = 296, Sindh = 246, KPK = 318, Balochistan = 151, Gilgit-Baltistan = 8). Warble fly infestation was reported from each province and from the federally administered tribal areas, particularly from hilly, semi-hilly and sandy desert areas (the Cholistan desert, which adjoins the Rehim Yar Khan, Bahawalpur and Bahawalnagar districts, and the Nara area of Sanghar district). Warbles (nodules) started appearing on the backs of the infested animals from September through December and disappeared from October through March. The prevalence of WFI varied from 5% to 75%. It was highest in hilly areas and gradually decreased towards the plains. A map was developed of warble fly-infested areas. Four field trials were conducted to study the efficacy of different drugs indicated for the control of warble fly infestation. A total of 2,094 cattle and 3,876 goats were given five different injectables (avermectins); namely, Ivomec, Endectin, Euvectin, Dectomax and Promectin (ivermectin) during the first three weeks of September. A control group was given normal saline. All the medicines were found to be effective in controlling infestation.

Prevalence and economic significance of bovine hypodermosis in Afyonkarahisar province of Turkey.

This study was carried out to investigate the prevalence and economic losses due to in cattle of hypodermosis between May 2008 and April 2009 in Afyonkarahisar province of Turkey. A total of 6,598 cattle-3,498 in pasture and 3,100 in slaughterhouse-were examined for hypodermosis. One hundred ninety-five out of 6,598 cattle (2.96%) were found positive. Concerning this infestation rate, the prevalence of hypodermosis in field was 5.3%, whereas the prevalence was 0.3% in slaughter house. Hypoderma bovis and Hypoderma lineatum were recorded in slaughter house. First-stage Hypoderma spp. larvae weren't found in cattle organs in slaughterhouse. The annual economic loss on skins is estimated to be about 18,288 TL (currency exchange rate is 1 USD:1.499 TL).

A serological and molecular survey of cattle hypodermosis in east-Turkey.

The aim of this study was to determine the seroprevalence of hypodermosis in cattle in East-Turkey and to identify Hypoderma species using morphological and molecular methods. For this purpose, a total of 778 serum samples of cattle were collected from Erzurum provinces of east-Turkey from December 2008 to February 2009. The sera were analyzed using a Hypodermin C antigen by means of indirect ELISA. In addition, 10 Hypoderma spp. larvae were collected from slaughtered animals in the abattoir for morphological identification and molecular characterization on the basis of mitochondrial CO1 gene sequence analysis and PCR-RFLP. Two hundred and twenty three (28.6%) out of 778 cattle were seropositive for hypoderma antibodies. All positive cattle were female of a local breed. Seven out of 10 Hypoderma larvae were morphologically classified as third instar larvae (L3) of H. bovis and 3 were classified as L3 of H. lineatum. The TaqI restriction enzyme was used to differentiate the Hypoderma species on the basis of the 438 and 250 bp bands for H. bovis and the 488 and 200 bp bands for H. lineatum resulting from PCR-RFLP. According to the alignment of the mitochondrial CO1 sequences of the Hypoderma species and the PCR-RFLP results, all examined larva samples were classified as H. bovis.

Use of a crude extract or purified antigen from first-instar cattle grubs, Hypoderma lineatum, for the detection of anti-Hypoderma antibodies in free-ranging cervids from southern Spain.

During the 2003-2005 hunting seasons, a total of 120 Cervidae, including 39 red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus) and 81 fallow deer (Dama dama), were examined for subcutaneous myiasis. Animals were shot from January to June in southern Spain. Specific antibodies against Hypodermatinae (Diptera: Oestridae) were detected by indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA) using a crude larval extract (CLE) and a purified antigen [hypodermin C (HC)] obtained from first instars of Hypoderma lineatum (De Villers) (Diptera: Oestridae). Hypoderma actaeon Brauer was the only species detected in this study, which represents the first confirmation of this species in fallow deer from Spain. The overall prevalence of animals presenting subcutaneous larvae (14.2%) was considerably lower than the prevalences determined by iELISA with CLE (43.3%) and HC (40.0%). Red deer showed a higher prevalence of Hypoderma than fallow deer. The concordance between larval examination during the hunting season and iELISA using both antigens was low, whereas the concordance between the CLE and HC ELISAs was good. Larval antigens obtained from H. lineatum constitute a good tool for the diagnosis of H. actaeon in Cervidae, especially when the hunting season does not coincide with the maximum presence of larvae on the back.

A successful, sustainable and low cost control-programme for bovine hypodermosis in France.

Bovine hypodermosis affecting livestock performance and the leather industry was still widespread in France up to the nineties despite successive directives from the Ministry of Agriculture since 1941, encouraging livestock owners to treat, on a voluntary basis. In 1969 the French Ministry of Agriculture, asked the national Farmers' Animal Health Organisation (FAHO), to plan a durable hypodermosis control programme and a working group including all the partners in cattle production was set up, under the coordination of the national FAHO. Improved systems of hypodermosis control, including new treatment and surveillance methods were developed. Among the main benefits obtained from this original work, were (i) the identification of scientific data which allowed inexpensive and accurate immuno-surveillance procedures, and a highly effective low-cost treatment, Ivomec, administered at the micro dose rate (2 microg/kg), which is environmentally non-threatening, and (ii) the development of a new strategy to manage the control programmes progressively, on a regional basis, in two to three concentric zones over three successive years at a maximum. The current programme, coordinated at the National level since 1998, has been implemented in each region of France. The compulsory systemic winter treatments directed against the endo-parasitic stage, carried out by technicians and veterinarians involved the entire bovine population in controlled zones. As each zone reached a hypodermosis herd prevalence of under 5%, usually after two years, the treatments were suspended. However treatments of the infected farms and contiguous farms were maintained. An immuno-survey was carried out, each winter, to evaluate the prevalence of the disease and detect any residual foci or re-infestations. Since 2002, bovine hypodermosis in France is under control with immuno-surveillance maintained at a very low cost. In 2006 hypodermosis became a notifiable disease.

Hypodermosis in cattle slaughtered in Nigde province, Turkey.

This study was carried out to investigate the prevalence of hypodermosis in cattle between January and June 2005 in Nigde province, which is located in the middle of Turkey. A total of 1336 cattle, which were slaughtered in Nigde, were investigated for Hypoderma larvae. The 68 out of 1336 cattle (%5.08) were found positive for Hypoderma larvae. A total of 536 Hypoderma larvae were found in the skin and subcutaneous tissue of the back of infested cattle. The 489 out of 536 larvae (%91.23) were identified as Hypoderma bovis and 47 out of 536 (%8.77) as H. lineatum. Number of Hypoderma larvae counted on single infested cattle varied between 1-45 and the mean number of Hypoderma larvae per cattle was 7.88 (536/68). Hypodermosis was recorded for the first time in cattle from Nigde.

Seroprevalence of hypodermosis in cattle in some provinces of Turkey.

The aim of this study was to determine the seroprevalence of hypodermosis in cattle in the east and southeast of Turkey. For this purpose, a total of 634 sera samples of cattle were collected from Malatya, Elazig and Diyarbakir provinces of east and southeast of Turkey from November 2005 to February 2006. The sera were analyzed using a Hypodermin C antigen by means of indirect ELISA. One hundred and forty eight (23.3%) out of 634 cattle were seropositive for hypoderma antibodies. The highest percentage of seropositivity were detected at Elazig province (26.3%) followed by Malatya (22.3%) and Diyarbakir provinces (22.1%). The seropositivity rate was higher in female (31%) than male (14.1%). When the mean is considered by animal breed, the highest seropositivity was detected at local breed (27.7%) following crossbreed (26.8%) and purebreed (19.7%). There was a positive relation between age and seropositivity. Seropositivity rate was 15.9% in 2 and under ages while these rates were 38.1% and 30.4% in 3-4 ages and 5 and up ages, respectively.

Geoprocessamento aplicado à observação da sazonalidade das larvas da mosca Dermatobia hominis no município de Seropédica - RJ / Geoprocessing applied to the seasonality of Dermatobia hominis larvae in the municipality of Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro

Associações espaço-temporais entre os fatores envolvidos na distribuição sazonal das larvas da mosca do berne - Dermatobia hominis (Linnaeus Jr., 1781) (Diptera: Cuterebridae) - em bovinos foram analisadas por geoprocessamento, utilizando-se o sistema de análise geoambiental da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, no município de Seropédica, RJ. Na primavera, 50 por cento da área do município foi muito favorável ao desenvolvimento dessa miíase. Esse grau de favorabilidade reduziu-se para 35 por cento, 23 por cento e 12 por cento no verão, outono e inverno, respectivamente

Space-temporal associations between factors involved in the seasonal distribution of Dermatobia hominis (Linnaeus Jr., 1781) (Diptera: Cuterebridae) fly larvae in cattle were analyzed by geoprocessing using the geo-environment system of the Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, in the municipality of Seropédica, RJ. In the spring, 50 percent of the area was favorable, reducing its extension to 35 percent in the summer, to 23 percent in the fall and to 12 percent in the winter

First description of the endogenous life cycle of Hypoderma sinense affecting yaks and cattle in China.

Larvae belonging to five species of Hypoderma spp. (Diptera, Oestridae) cause myiasis in wild and domestic ruminants that is characterized by migrations within deep tissues. In China hypodermosis is one of the most important arthropod diseases affecting ruminants and, moreover, represents a significant zoonosis, with numerous reports of Hypoderma spp. affecting farmers. Recently, a sixth species, Hypoderma sinense Pleske, has been rediscovered but the endogenous migration pathway within the host body is completely unknown and it represents a major constraint for the control of larval infection. In December 2003 a total of 165 larval stages of Hypoderma spp. were collected from different anatomical sites of 40 yaks slaughtered at an abattoir in the province of Gansu, China. The morphological characters and size of the recovered larvae were used to infer migratory routes and 45 specimens were also subjected to a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay of cox1 mtDNA and amplicons sequenced. All the larvae molecularly processed were identified as H. sinense and sequence identity was confirmed by a PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) tool carried out using BfaI and HinfI endonucleases. The finding of H. sinense larvae only in the oesophagus or both in oesophagus and subcutaneous tissue of 12 and 15 animals, respectively, indicates that H. sinense larvae migrate through the oesophagus similarly to Hypoderma lineatum (De Villers). The description of the endogenous life cycle of H. sinense will help to determine the timing of specific treatment programmes to guarantee the improvement of animal welfare and health, thus resulting in an increase in livestock production in China.

Bovine hypodermosis: prevalence and economic significance in southern Punjab, Pakistan.

Prevalence and economic losses of warble fly infestation (WFI) in cattle and buffaloes were recorded in Dera Ghazi Khan and Rajan Pur districts of southern Punjab (Pakistan). A total of 18,000 cattle and 9000 buffaloes were examined in the field and slaughter house. Only one species of Hypoderma, i.e. Hypoderma lineatum was recorded from this area. The prevalence of WFI was higher in slaughter house versus field, cattle versus buffaloes, males versus females, and young versus old animals in both the districts. The highest month-wise prevalence was recorded in December and the lowest in July. Organ-wise prevalence of WFI was highest in oesophagus followed in order by rumen and spleen. The economic losses based on the value of warbled and warble-free hides were estimated as Rs. 22.8 million per annum (currency exchange rate is Rs. 57.5=US 1 dollar).

Sero-epidemiological surveillance of hypodermosis in yaks and cattle in north China by ELISA.

A large-scale serological surveillance was conducted for hypodermosis in the north of China. A total of 4175 sera samples of yaks and cattle were collected from five provinces in north China that included Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang, Jiling and Gansu provinces, between 2001 and 2002, and were examined for anti-hypoderma antibody by ELISA. The results indicate that the naturally infested positive rates of Hypoderma spp. in the above provinces were 51.77%, 27.02%, 13.00%, 6.03% and 44.41%, respectively. These results suggest a significant warble fly population in the north of China. Positive sera were collected from infested cattle in Pingliang county of the Gansu province monthly between August 2001 and July 2002. These sera were used to evaluate the seasonal kinetics of anti-hypoderma antibody. The kinetics demonstrated that anti-hypoderma antibody was elevated from October to December. Thus, serological surveillances associated with low infestation rates and chemical therapy would best be performed from October to December in the region.

Cattle grub infestation by Hypoderma sp. in Albania and risks for European countries.

In order to estimate the presence and the seroprevalence of hypodermosis in Albania, 625 head of cattle were bled during two sampling seasons (i.e. from February to March 2003 and from November to December 2003). The cattle came from three collection sites in Northern (site A), Central (site B) and Southern (site C) Albania. Milk samples were collected monthly from four animals from October 2002 to May 2003 during the lactating period. The animals were also clinically examined for the presence of warbles by manual palpation from April to July 2003 and 2004 and third instar larvae were collected and morphologically identified. Serum and milk samples were processed by ELISA. One hundred and thirty-three (38.6%) out of 344 and 116 (41.3%) out of 281 animals were found to be seropositive for Hypoderma during the first and the second sampling season. In particular, the animals from site C presented the highest percentage of seropositive results (i.e. 72.8% and 97.8% in the first and in second year, respectively) followed by the animals from sites A (i.e. 35.8% and 23.8% in the first and in second year, respectively) and B (i.e. 17.8% and 3.4% in the first and in second year, respectively). The kinetics of anti-Hypoderma antibodies in milk samples showed the highest antibody titres from October to February 2003. All the seropositive animals in both the sampling periods showed the presence of one or more warbles under the skin during April and May 2003 and 2004 and the third-stage larvae collected were morphologically identified as Hypoderma bovis. The results of this survey indicate that hypodermosis is widespread in Albania and that early prophylactic treatments must be carried out accordingly. The hope is not only to reduce the parasitic intensity with obvious benefits for livestock production, but also to avoid the risk of spreading this parasitic disease to neighboring countries.

The prevalence of bovine hypodermosis in Kars province, Turkey.

A total of 1276 cattle from 76 farms in 8 villages were examined by palpation of the skin for evidence of hypodermosis. The effects of age, sex, breed, and colour of cattle on hypodermosis were investigated. The overall prevalence was 31.9%. The mean number of warble fly larvae on infested animals was 8.46. Hypodermosis infestations were encountered in all the villages visited. Within a herd, the intensity of infestion decreased with the age of cattle. Infestation rates of warble fly larvae were lower in native cattle, in females, and in piebald animals.

Herd-level seroprevalence and risk-mapping of bovine hypodermosis in Belgian cattle herds.

Our objective was to determine the seroprevalence of Hypoderma spp. and to develop a spatial model describing the risk surface of warble-fly infection in Belgian cattle herds (adjusting for herd size, herd type, local temperature, rainfall, relative air humidity and land-cover). This survey was carried out in 390 selected herds of all types (dairy, mixed and beef) from December 1997 to March 1998, which were included in a national infectious bovine rhinotracheitis and paratuberculosis (Johne's-disease) survey. All animals >24 months old were blood sampled and an ELISA was used on pooled serum samples (10 animals per pool). The herd seroprevalence was 48.7% (95% confidence interval: 43.6-53.8); positive herds were mainly in the south of the country and along the North Sea coast. The logistic multiple-regression model of herd-level seropositivity indicated that mixed-type and beef-cattle herds have more than four-fold and two-fold increases in the odds of being Hypoderma-positive, respectively, compared with dairy herds.

Durably controlling bovine hypodermosis.

Cattle hypodermosis, due to insect larvae, is widely spread over the northern hemisphere. Very efficient insecticides are available and their use in most countries are done on an individual level but never cover the whole cattle population of a country. Untreated animals remain the reservoir of the disease and annually re-infest the cattle population. The economic effects of this disease on animal production (meat, milk and the leather industry) but also on the general cattle health status, have led many European countries to launch organised control programs. The first example of definitive hypodermosis control goes back one hundred years ago when Danish farmers eradicated hypodermosis from the Danish islands by manual elimination of the warbles. Since then, more and more European countries have considered the feasibility and economic returns of such programs. The various factors which foster these programs are related to (i) biological factors, (parasite cattle specificity, synchronous biological cycles of both species of insects involved), (ii) the development of more and more efficient insecticides used only once a year by systemic application, with high efficiency at very low dosages against the first larval stage of Hypoderma spp., (iii) the development of acute techniques of detection of the disease for the monitoring of hypodermosis free countries and (iv) the durable successful results obtained in more and more European countries. Although the programs were imposed by different partners of the livestock channel production (farmers, dairy industry, leather industry) and have been engaged within the last 50 years in many European countries (Denmark, The Netherlands, Ireland, the United Kingdom, the Czech Republic, Germany, France and Switzerland) common features have emerged among these different eradication programs. They all need a preliminary statement of the economic impact of this pest and the farmers' awareness of the economic returns of such programs. The programs' efficacy depends: (i) on a good knowledge ofthe epidemiology of the parasites, (ii) on the simultaneous implementation of the control program on the whole national cattle population whatever the structure monitoring the treatments (veterinary services, farmers association), (iii) on a national Warble fly legislation making the treatments compulsory and (iv) on an acute epidemiological survey as soon as the status of a hypodermosis free country is reached and the treatments are suspended. The sanitary and financial returns of such programs are a benefit to all the partners of livestock production, to the quality of the environment and to the consumers.