MMP2 Modulates Inflammatory Response during Axonal Regeneration in the Murine Visual System.

Neuroinflammation has been put forward as a mechanism triggering axonal regrowth in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS), yet little is known about the underlying cellular and molecular players connecting these two processes. In this study, we provide evidence that MMP2 is an essential factor linking inflammation to axonal regeneration by using an in vivo mouse model of inflammation-induced axonal regeneration in the optic nerve. We show that infiltrating myeloid cells abundantly express MMP2 and that MMP2 deficiency results in reduced long-distance axonal regeneration. However, this phenotype can be rescued by restoring MMP2 expression in myeloid cells via a heterologous bone marrow transplantation. Furthermore, while MMP2 deficiency does not affect the number of infiltrating myeloid cells, it does determine the coordinated expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory molecules. Altogether, in addition to its role in axonal regeneration via resolution of the glial scar, here, we reveal a new mechanism via which MMP2 facilitates axonal regeneration, namely orchestrating the expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory molecules by infiltrating innate immune cells.

ShRNA-mediated matrix metalloproteinase-2 gene silencing protects normal cells and sensitizes cancer cells against ionizing-radiation induced damage.

INTRODUCTION: Ionizing radiation (IR) affects healthy tissues during the treatment of cancer radiation therapy and other nuclear and radiological accidents. Some natural compounds showed nonspecific radioprotective activity with severe side effects. The present study is aimed to develop potent and specific radioprotective short hairpin RNA (shRNA), which selectively protects normal cells from IR by specifically targeting matrix metalloproteinases (MMP-2). RESULTS: IR reduced the viability of human normal dermal fibroblasts (HDFs) in a dose-response manner. It enhanced the expression of MMP-2 at 10 Gy. Plasmid MMP-2shRNA (pMMP-2) reduced the IR (10 Gy) induced cytotoxicity analyzed by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay, normalized IR induced cellular and morphological changes with enhanced the clonogenicity in 48 hours at 2 µg/mL. It reduced the ROS generation, released HDFs from G2 /M arrest and rescued from apoptosis analyzed by DCFDA dye, cell cycle analysis by PI stain and annexin V assay, respectively. pMMP-2 also modulates the expression of EGFR and reduced IR induced expression of DNA damage response protein, ATM and increased the expression of repair proteins, KU70/KU80, and RAD51. In addition, decreased the expression of cell cycle regulatory proteins cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK1) and Cyclin B as well as proapoptotic proteins BAX, caspase-3, and Cytochrome-C and increased the expression of survival protein, Bcl-2. In contrary pMMP-2 decreased the LDH activity, survival fraction and blocked G2 /M phase of cell cycle and increased apoptosis in MCF-7 cells. In addition, decreased the expression of EGFR, proapoptotic BAX and DNA repair proteins ATM, KU70/80 and RAD51, increased expression of cyclinB as well as CDK1. CONCLUSION: Results conclude that pMMP-2 protected HDFs from IR and sensitized the MCF-7 cells. Therefore, pMMP-2 can be employed for better treatment of radiation accidents and during the treatment of radiotherapy.

Pathologies of matrix metalloproteinase-2 underactivity: a perspective on a neglected condition 1.

A member of the matrix metalloproteinase family, matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2, gelatinase A), has been extensively studied for its role in both normal physiology and pathological processes. Whereas most research efforts in recent years have investigated the pathologies associated with MMP-2 overactivity, the pathological mechanisms elicited by MMP-2 underactivity are less well understood. Here, we distinguish between 2 states and describe their causes: (i) MMP-2 deficiency (complete loss of MMP-2 activity) and (ii) MMP-2 insufficiency (defined as MMP-2 activity below baseline levels). Further, we review the biology of MMP-2, summarizing the current literature on MMP-2 underactivity in both mice and humans, and describe research being conducted by our lab towards improving our understanding of the pathological mechanisms elicited by MMP-2 deficiency/insufficiency. We think that this research could stimulate the discovery of new therapeutic approaches for managing pathologies associated with MMP-2 underactivity. Moreover, similar concepts could apply to other members of the matrix metalloproteinase family.

MMP-2: is too low as bad as too high in the cardiovascular system?

Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 cleaves a broad spectrum of substrates, including extracellular matrix components (responsible for normal tissue remodeling) and cytokines (modulators of the inflammatory response to physiological insults such as tissue damage). MMP-2 expression is elevated in many cardiovascular pathologies (e.g., myocardial infarction, hypertensive heart disease) where tissue remodeling and inflammatory responses are perturbed. Thus, it has generally been assumed that blockade of MMP-2 activity will yield therapeutic effects. Here, we provide a counterargument to this dogma based on 1) preclinical studies on Mmp2-null ( Mmp2-/-) mice and 2) clinical studies on patients with inactivating MMP2 gene mutations. Furthermore, we put forward the hypothesis that, when MMP-2 activity falls below baseline, the bioavailability of proinflammatory cytokines normally cleaved and inactivated by MMP-2 increases, leading to the production of cytokines and cardiac secretion of phospholipase A2 activity into the circulation, which stimulate systemic inflammation that perturbs lipid metabolism in target organs. Finally, we suggest that insufficient understanding of the consequences of MMP-2 deficiency remains a major factor in the failure of MMP-2 inhibitor-based therapeutic approaches. This paucity of knowledge precludes our ability to effectively intervene in cardiovascular and noncardiovascular pathologies at the level of MMP-2.

Effects of Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) on human amniotic epithelial cell proliferation and migration.

BACKGROUND: The deleterious effects of cannabis consumption for fertility and pregnancy outcome are recognized for years. The main psychoactive molecule of cannabis, Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is able to cross the placenta barrier and cause alterations in fetal growth, low birth weight and preterm labor. However, the effects of THC on the human placenta amnion are still unknown. METHODS: The distributions of CB1R and CB2R in human amnion tissues were observed by immunohistochemistry (IHC). Human amniotic epithelial cell proliferation and migration in response to THC treatment were measured by MTS and transwell assays, respectively. The PCR array was performed to study the key regulators involved in the cell migration. The protein levels of CB1R, CB2R in amnion tissues and MMP2, MMP9 in cells were detected by western blotting. Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) were used to knockdown MMP2 and MMP9 in WISH cells. RESULTS: Our results indicated that both CB1R and CB2R primarily identified in the epithelial layer of human placental amnion tissue. The CB1R expression in the amnion tissue was higher in the preterm group than normal control. High-dose of THC (30uM, but not 20 and 10uM) significantly inhibited (p<0.01) human amniotic epithelial cell lines (WISH) proliferation. Meanwhile, THC at both 10uM and 20uM (p<0.05) significantly suppressed cells migration in both WISH and primary human amniotic epithelial cells. The PCR array data and siRNA experiments demonstrated that MMP2/9 were tightly involved in the regulation of THC-inhibited cell migration in WISH cells. CONCLUSION: These results suggested that THC inhibited the migration of human amniotic epithelial cell through the regulation of MMP2 and MMP9, which in turn altered the development of the amnion during the gestation and partially resulted in preterm labor and other adverse pregnancy outcomes.

MMP-2: A modulator of neuronal precursor activity and cognitive and motor behaviors.

Matrix Metalloproteinase2, (MMP2, gelatinase A) is a zinc-containing enzyme with a broad substrate specificity including components of the extracellular matrix, cell surface molecules and a wide range bioactive molecules. MMP2 is known to play important roles in a variety of signaling pathways and processes in a wide range of cell types and tissues. In this report we elucidate the effects of the absence of MMP2 in Neural Precursor Cells (NPC) derived from C57BL/6 MMP2 KO mice and in primary and secondary neurosphere formation. We observed smaller neurosphere numbers and sizes, decreased NPC numbers, PCNA expression, DNA and Akt activation in MMP2 KO NPC compared to WT NPC. We also found decreased neurosphere formation and NPC migration outward from adherent neurospheres, decreased CXCR4 and nestin expression and increased GFAP and neuro-filament expression in MMP2 KO NPC compared to Wt NPC. MMP2 KO mice were found to exhibit increased anxiety manifested in open field activity assays compared to Wt mice. MMP2 KO mice also exhibited differences in motor activities manifested by decreased balance and endurance during Rota-rod testing. These studies illustrate an important role of MMP2 in cognitive and motor behaviors and confirm its importance in NPC activities crucial to brain development, growth and response to and recovery from injury.

Modulation of Systemic Metabolism by MMP-2: From MMP-2 Deficiency in Mice to MMP-2 Deficiency in Patients.

Matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) is a 72-kDa zinc- and calcium-dependent endopeptidase with intracellular and extracellular functions ranging from the modulation of extracellular matrix remodeling to cell growth and migration, angiogenesis, inflammation, and metabolism. An upregulation of MMP-2 activity has the potential to deregulate lipid metabolism through the cleavage of numerous metabolic mediators including plasma lipoproteins and cell surface receptors of lipoproteins. Paradoxically, MMP-2 deficiency induces inflammation and deregulates metabolism. Humans and mice with a deficiency in MMP-2 activity share a complex metabolic and inflammatory syndrome including cardiac dysfunction associated with congenital heart defects (in humans) and metabolic disorder (mice), arthritis, loss of bone mass, lipodystrophy, and delayed growth. The etiology of the inflammatory and metabolic syndrome in MMP-2 deficiency is unknown and there is currently no cure for MMP-2 deficiency in patients. Recent research suggests that the pathophysiology of MMP-2 deficiency in mice and humans is influenced by a heart-centric endocrine mechanism signaled by a cardiac-specific secreted phospholipase A2 (cardiac sPLA2), which is released from cardiomyocytes in response to monocyte chemoattractant protein-3, a proinflammatory cytokine normally cleaved and inactivated by MMP-2. This review summarizes many important proteolytic functions of MMP-2 and recapitulates recent reports linking the heart to systemic metabolic control through the MMP-2/cardiac sPLA2 axis. The authors suggest that MMP-2 deficiency should, perhaps, be viewed and treated as an endocrine condition of excess sPLA2, a concept with particular importance for the therapeutic treatment of MMP-2-deficient patients. The possible existence of tissue-specific MMP/cytokine/PLA2 signaling systems is discussed. © 2016 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 6:1935-1949, 2016.

Matrix Metalloproteinase-2 Knockout and Heterozygote Mice Are Protected from Hydronephrosis and Kidney Fibrosis after Unilateral Ureteral Obstruction.

Matrix Metalloproteinase-2 (Mmp2) is a collagenase known to be important in the development of renal fibrosis. In unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) the obstructed kidney (OK) develops fibrosis, while the contralateral (CL) does not. In this study we investigated the effect of UUO on gene expression, fibrosis and pelvic remodeling in the kidneys of Mmp2 deficient mice (Mmp2-/-), heterozygous animals (Mmp2+/-) and wild-type mice (Mmp2+/+). Sham operated animals served as controls (Cntrl). UUO was prepared under isoflurane anaesthesia, and the animals were sacrificed after one week. UUO caused hydronephrosis, dilation of renal tubules, loss of parenchymal thickness, and fibrosis. Damage was most severe in Mmp2+/+ mice, while both Mmp2-/- and Mmp2+/- groups showed considerably milder hydronephrosis, no tubular necrosis, and less tubular dilation. Picrosirius red quantification of fibrous collagen showed 1.63±0.25% positivity in OK and 0.29±0.11% in CL (p<0.05) of Mmp2+/+, Mmp2-/- OK and Mmp2-/- CL exhibited only 0.49±0.09% and 0.23±0.04% (p<0.05) positivity, respectively. Mmp2+/- OK and Mmp2+/- CL showed 0.43±0.09% and 0.22±0.06% (p<0.05) positivity, respectively. Transcriptomic analysis showed that 26 genes (out of 48 examined) were differentially expressed by ANOVA (p<0.05). 25 genes were upregulated in Mmp2+/+ OK compared to Mmp2+/+ CL: Adamts1, -2, Col1a1, -2, -3a1, -4a1, -5a1, -5a2, Dcn, Fbln1, -5, Fmod, Fn1, Itga2, Loxl1, Mgp, Mmp2, -3, Nid1, Pdgfb, Spp1, Tgfb1, Timp2, Trf, Vim. In Mmp2-/- and Mmp2+/- 18 and 12 genes were expressed differentially between OK and CL, respectively. Only Mmp2 was differentially regulated when comparing Mmp2-/- OK and Mmp2+/- OK. Under stress, it appears that Mmp2+/- OK responds with less Mmp2 upregulation than Mmp2+/+ OK, suggesting that there is a threshold level of Mmp2 necessary for damage and fibrosis to occur. In conclusion, reduced Mmp2 expression during UUO protects mice against hydronephrosis and renal fibrosis.

Identification of a Novel Heart-Liver Axis: Matrix Metalloproteinase-2 Negatively Regulates Cardiac Secreted Phospholipase A2 to Modulate Lipid Metabolism and Inflammation in the Liver.

BACKGROUND: Endocrine functions of the heart have been well established. We investigated the hypothesis that cardiac secretion of a unique phospholipase A2 recently identified by our laboratory (cardiac secreted phospholipase A2 [sPLA2]) establishes a heart-liver endocrine axis that is negatively regulated by matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2). METHODS AND RESULTS: In Mmp2(-/-) mice, cardiac (but not hepatic) sPLA2 was elevated, leading to hepatic inflammation, immune cell infiltration, dysregulation of the sterol regulatory element binding protein-2 and liver X receptor-α pathways, abnormal transcriptional responses to dietary cholesterol, and elevated triglycerides in very low-density lipoprotein and in the liver. Expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-3, a known MMP-2 substrate, was elevated at both mRNA and protein levels in the heart. Functional studies including in vivo antibody neutralization identified cardiac monocyte chemoattractant protein 3 as a possible agonist of cardiac sPLA2 secretion. Conversely, systemic sPLA2 inhibition almost fully normalized the cardiohepatic phenotype without affecting monocyte chemoattractant protein-3. Finally, wild-type mice that received high-performance liquid chromatography-isolated cardiac sPLA2 from Mmp2(-/-) donors developed a cardiohepatic gene expression profile similar to that of Mmp2(-/-) mice. CONCLUSIONS: These findings identified the novel MMP-2/cardiac sPLA2 pathway that endows the heart with important endocrine functions, including regulation of inflammation and lipid metabolism in the liver. Our findings could also help explain how MMP2 deficiency leads to cardiac problems, inflammation, and metabolic dysregulation in patients.

Decreased TNF Levels and Improved Retinal Ganglion Cell Survival in MMP-2 Null Mice Suggest a Role for MMP-2 as TNF Sheddase.

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have been designated as both friend and foe in the central nervous system (CNS): while being involved in many neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory diseases, their actions appear to be indispensable to a healthy CNS. Pathological conditions in the CNS are therefore often related to imbalanced MMP activities and disturbances of the complex MMP-dependent protease network. Likewise, in the retina, various studies in animal models and human patients suggested MMPs to be involved in glaucoma. In this study, we sought to determine the spatiotemporal expression profile of MMP-2 in the excitotoxic retina and to unravel its role during glaucoma pathogenesis. We reveal that intravitreal NMDA injection induces MMP-2 expression to be upregulated in the Müller glia. Moreover, MMP-2 null mice display attenuated retinal ganglion cell death upon excitotoxic insult to the retina, which is accompanied by normal glial reactivity, yet reduced TNF levels. Hence, we propose a novel in vivo function for MMP-2, as an activating sheddase of tumor necrosis factor (TNF). Given the pivotal role of TNF as a proinflammatory cytokine and neurodegeneration-exacerbating mediator, these findings generate important novel insights into the pathological processes contributing to glaucomatous neurodegeneration and into the interplay of neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in the CNS.

Consideraciones clínicas de la expresión de P504S y metaloproteinasa de matriz 2 en células prostáticas circulantes en sangre diseminadas como resultado de una biopsia prostática trans-rectal guiada por ecografía / Expression of P504S and matrix metalloproteinase-2 in circulating prostate cells disseminated as a result of transrectal ultrasound guided biopsy as determined by immunocytochemistry: Clinical implications

OBJETIVO: la manipulación quirúrgica del cáncer tiene la potencialidad de aumentar la diseminación de células cancerosas al torrente sanguíneo y con esto el riesgo de metástasis. Presentamos el efecto de la biopsia prostática en la diseminación de estas células así como sus características fenotípicas. MÉTODOS: Se incluyeron cincuenta hombres que fueron sometidos a una biopsia prostática trans rectal como sospecha de cáncer de próstata en nuestro estudio. Se recolectaron muestras sanguíneas inmediatamente antes de la biopsia, una hora y 24 horas posterior a la misma, para detección de células prostáticas en sangre (CPC) así como para determinar sus características fenotípicas utilizando inmunocitoquímica estándar con anti PSA y luego caracterizarlas utilizando anti P504S y anti matriz de metaloproteinasa 2 (MMP-2). RESULTADOS: Catorce hombres (28%) tuvieron cáncer de próstata en la biopsia, 13 de estos fueron P504S + y MMP-2 + previo a la biopsia. Una hora posterior a la biopsia existió una mezcla de P504S + y P504S - así como de MMP2 + y MMP2 - en pacientes con biopsia positiva para cáncer, niveles que se igualaron a los pre biopsia luego de 24 horas. En pacientes negativos para cáncer, se detectaron células circulantes P504S - y MMP-2 -, algunas de ellas se mantuvieron por más de 24 horas. CONCLUSIONES: La biopsia prostática puede causar diseminación de células prostáticas malignas y benignas a la circulación y la mayoría son eliminadas dentro de las primeras 24 horas. No existió conversión de pacientes con cáncer de CPCs negativos a positivos lo que sugiere que la capacidad inherente de las células prostáticas de diseminar es más importante que el efecto de la biopsia prostática

OBJECTIVES: Surgical manipulation of cancer has been shown to increase blood borne cancer cell dissemination and increase the risk of metastasis. We present the effect of prostate biopsy on prostate cell dissemination and the phenotypic characteristics of these cells. METHODS: 50 men undergoing initial prostate biopsy for suspicion of prostate cancer were studied. Blood samples were taken immediately before, and 1 and 24 hours after biopsy for circulating prostate cells (CPC) determination and phenotypic characterization. CPCs were detected and counted using standard immunocytochemistry using anti-PSA and then characterized using anti-P504S and anti-matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2). RESULTS: 14 (28%) men had cancer detected on biopsy. 13/14 had P504S (+) and MMP-2 (+) cells detected prior to biopsy. One hour after biopsy there was a mixture of P504S (+) and P504S (-) cells detected, as well as MMP-2 (+) and MMP-2 (-) cells detected. 24 hours after biopsy the same 13/14 men remained positive, although the number of CPCs increased 1 hour after biopsy and then the numbers decreased to prebiopsy levels after 24 hours. In cancer negative men, P504S (-) and MMP-2 (-) cells were detected, some of these cells persisted 24 hours after biopsy. CONCLUSIONS: Prostate biopsy causes dissemination of prostate cells into the circulation, both malignant and benign; the majority of them are cleared within 24 hours. There was no conversion of negative to positive result in men with cancer, this suggests that the inherent capacity of malignant CPCs to disseminate is more important than the effect of dissemination caused by prostate biopsy

Gelatinase A (MMP-2) promotes murine adipogenesis.

BACKGROUND: Expansion of adipose tissue is dependent on adipogenesis, angiogenesis and extracellular matrix remodeling. A functional role in these processes was suggested for the gelatinase subfamily of the matrix metalloproteinases. Here, we have evaluated a potential role of gelatinase A (MMP-2) in adipogenesis. METHODS: Murine embryonic fibroblasts (MEF) were derived from wild-type or MMP-2 deficient mice. Genetic manipulation of Mmp2 (shRNA-knockdown or overexpression) was performed in 3T3-F442A preadipocytes. Cell cultures were subjected to an adipogenic medium. As an in vivo model for de novo adipogenesis, 3T3-F442A preadipocytes with or without knockdown were injected subcutaneously in Nude BALB/c mice kept on high fat diet. RESULTS: Mmp2 deficient MEF, as compared to controls, showed significantly impaired differentiation into mature adipocytes, as demonstrated by 90% reduced intracellular lipid content and reduced expression of pro-adipogenic markers. Moreover, selective Mmp2 knockdown in 3T3-F442A preadipocytes resulted in significantly reduced differentiation. In contrast, overexpression of Mmp2 resulted in markedly enhanced differentiation. In de novo formed fat pads resulting from preadipocytes with Mmp2 knockdown expression of aP2, Ppar-γ and adiponectin was significantly lower, and collagen was more preserved. The fat pad weights as well as size and density of adipocytes or blood vessels were, however, not significantly different from controls. CONCLUSION: Our data directly support a functional role of MMP-2 in adipogenesis in vitro, and suggest a potential role in in vivo adipogenesis. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: Selective modulation of MMP-2 levels affects adipogenesis.

Divergent roles of matrix metalloproteinase 2 in pathogenesis of thoracic aortic aneurysm.

OBJECTIVE: Aortic aneurysm, focal dilation of the aorta, results from impaired integrity of aortic extracellular matrix (ECM). Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are traditionally known as ECM-degrading enzymes. MMP2 has been associated with aneurysm in patients and in animal models. We investigated the role of MMP2 in thoracic aortic aneurysm using 2 models of aortic remodeling and aneurysm. APPROACH AND RESULTS: Male 10-week-old MMP2-deficient (MMP2(-/-)) and wild-type mice received angiotensin II (Ang II, 1.5 mg/kg/day) or saline (Alzet pump) for 4 weeks. Although both genotypes exhibited dilation of the ascending aorta after Ang II infusion, MMP2(-/-) mice showed more severe dilation of the thoracic aorta and thoracic aortic aneurysm. The Ang II-induced increase in elastin and collagen (mRNA and protein) was markedly suppressed in MMP2(-/-) thoracic aorta and smooth muscle cells, whereas only mRNA levels were reduced in MMP2(-/-)-Ang II abdominal aorta. Consistent with the absence of MMP2, proteolytic activities were lower in MMP2(-/-)-Ang II compared with wild-type-Ang II thoracic and abdominal aorta. MMP2-deficiency suppressed the activation of latent transforming growth factor-ß and the Smad2/3 pathway in vivo and in vitro. Intriguingly, MMP2(-/-) mice were protected against CaCl2-induced thoracic aortic aneurysm, which triggered ECM degradation but not synthesis. CONCLUSIONS: This study reveals the dual role of MMP2 in ECM degradation, as well as ECM synthesis. Moreover, the greater susceptibility of the thoracic aorta to impaired ECM synthesis, compared with vulnerability of the abdominal aorta to aberrant ECM degradation, provides an insight into the regional susceptibility of the aorta to aneurysm development.

Focal MMP-2 and MMP-9 activity at the blood-brain barrier promotes chemokine-induced leukocyte migration.

Although chemokines are sufficient for chemotaxis of various cells, increasing evidence exists for their fine-tuning by selective proteolytic processing. Using a model of immune cell chemotaxis into the CNS (experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis [EAE]) that permits precise localization of immigrating leukocytes at the blood-brain barrier, we show that, whereas chemokines are required for leukocyte migration into the CNS, additional MMP-2/9 activities specifically at the border of the CNS parenchyma strongly enhance this transmigration process. Cytokines derived from infiltrating leukocytes regulate MMP-2/9 activity at the parenchymal border, which in turn promotes astrocyte secretion of chemokines and differentially modulates the activity of different chemokines at the CNS border, thereby promoting leukocyte migration out of the cuff. Hence, cytokines, chemokines, and cytokine-induced MMP-2/9 activity specifically at the inflammatory border collectively act to accelerate leukocyte chemotaxis across the parenchymal border.

Stromal matrix metalloproteinase 2 regulates collagen expression and promotes the outgrowth of experimental metastases.

Breast cancer survival rates decrease from 99% for patients with local disease to 25% for those with distant metastases. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), including MMP2, are associated with metastatic progression. We found that loss of host MMP2 reduces the proliferation of experimental metastases in the lungs and identified fibroblasts in tumour-bearing lungs as the major source of MMP2. In vitro, spheroidal mammary tumour growth was increased by co-culture with control fibroblasts isolated from tumour-bearing lungs, but not when fibroblasts with stable Mmp2 knockdown were used. This result prompted us to assess whether MMP2 was responsible for a tumour-proliferative, activated fibroblast phenotype. To test this, we evaluated: (a) fibroblasts from wild-type tumour-bearing lungs, with or without shRNA-mediated MMP2 knockdown; and (b) normal, quiescent fibroblasts isolated from either WT or Mmp2(-/-) mice. Quantitative PCR revealed that Mmp2 knockdown attenuated expression of two markers of activation (α-smooth muscle actin and vimentin), but there was minimal expression in quiescent WT or Mmp2(-/-) fibroblasts, as expected. Placing quiescent fibroblasts under activating conditions led to increases in activation-associated transcripts in WT but not Mmp2(-/-) fibroblasts. Additionally, Mmp2 knockdown fibroblasts showed significantly decreased expression of the matrix transcripts collagen I, collagen IV and fibronectin. Addition of active TGFß was sufficient to rescue the MMP2-dependent collagen I and IV expression, while MMP2-induced collagen expression was blocked by the addition of TGFß1-neutralizing antibody. Gene expression data in stromal cells of human breast cancers reveal that MMP2 expression is also positively correlated with activation and matrix transcripts. Thus, we present a model whereby MMP2 production in tumour fibroblasts is important for TGFß1 activity and subsequent activation of fibroblasts to a matrix-producing, proliferation-supportive phenotype. Overall, our results reveal a previously undefined role for MMP2 in metastatic outgrowth mediated by fibroblasts, and extend the mechanisms by which MMPs contribute to tumour progression.

[HBx silencing by shRNA down-regulates MMP-2 expression in human hepatocellular carcinoma cell HepG2.2.15].

OBJECTIVE: To observe the effects of HBx shRNA on MMP-2 expression in human hepatocellular carcinoma cell HepG2.2.15. METHODS: HepG2.2.15 cells were transfected with psiHBV/X plasmid using Lipofectamine(TM);2000. The silencing efficacy was evaluated by reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) detecting the expression of HBx gene. The proliferation of HepG2.2.15 cells was examined by MTT assay. The expression levels of MMP-2 mRNA and protein were assayed by real-time quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR) and Western blotting, respectively. RESULTS: RT-PCR showed that the efficiency of RNA interference of HBx gene was 53.6%. MTT detection revealed that the cell proliferation was inhibited at 24, 48, and 72 hours after the transfection (0.388±0.087, 0.623±0.016, 0.997±0.036) and the differences had statistically significance as compared with the control group (0.436±0.027, 0.731±0.017, 1.105±0.051) (P<0.05). The qRT-PCR and Western blotting showed that the expression of MMP-2 decreased at both mRNA and protein levels, and the differences had statistically significance as compared with the control group (P<0.05). CONCLUSION: HBx gene RNA interference can inhibit the cell proliferation and down-regulate the expression of MMP-2 in HepG2.2.15 cells.

Matrix metallopeptidase 2 (MMP2) mediates MHC class I polypeptide-related sequence A (MICA) shedding in renal cell carcinoma.

INTRODUCTION: The MHC class i chain-related molecule A (MICA) is a ligand for the natural killer group 2, member D (NKG2D) immunoreceptor activation. The engagement of tumor cell surface MICA to NKG2D stimulates the NK and T cell antitumor immunity. Shedding of MICA by tumor cells facilitates tumor immune evasion, which might partially contribute to tumor progression. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Inmunohistochemistry was performed on both normal and neoplastic renal tissue. Human renal carcinoma cell lines 786-0 and ACHIN were transfected and target sequences to silence human MMP2 by shRNA expression were established. The degree of MICA shedding was measured and quantitative real-time PCR and Western-blot analysis were performed. RESULTS: The membrane type matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2) mediated the MICA shedding, which was blocked by suppression of MMP2 expression. Concomitantly, MMP2 over-expression enhanced the MICA shedding, indicating that MMP2 was involved in the renal cell carcinoma-associated proteolytic release of soluble MICA (sMICA), which facilitated the tumor immune escape. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggested that MMP2 might be a new potential target for tumor immune therapy. Elucidation of the mechanisms by which tumors shed MICA could be of a great importance for cancer treatment in order to reinforce the NK and T cell antitumor immunity.

Mechanism of matrix metalloproteinase axis-induced neointimal growth.

Tumor necrosis factor-α, platelet-derived growth factor, matrix metalloproteinases 9 and 2 have very important roles in neointimal hyperplasia, which develops after endovascular injury. However, the relationships among the four factors in inducing neointimal hyperplasia are unclear. Here, we used a mouse model of femoral arterial transluminal wire injury, and examined neointimal hyperplasia within the 28 days that followed the injury. We confirmed that the neointima kept growing during the 28 days, and found that expression of TNF-α and PDGF mRNAs in femoral arteries peaked within 24h after injury. However, MMP9 mRNA expression peaked 7 days, and MMP2 mRNA expression peaked 28 days after injury. Then, we administered exogenous TNF-α or PDGF to the peri-femoral artery following an injury, and found that exogenous TNF-α led to significantly more neointimal hyperplasia during the first 2 weeks, and PDGF led to increased neointimal hyperplasia during the second 2 weeks after injury. We also used the model of femoral artery injury in MMP9- or MMP2-deficient (MMP9-/- or MMP2-/-) mice. We found that neointimal hyperplasia was reduced in MMP9-/- mice during the first 2 weeks after injury, and neointimal hyperplasia was reduced in MMP2-/- mice during the second 2 weeks after injury. When TNF-α or PDGF was administered to the peri-femoral artery immediately after injury, TNF-α did not promote neointimal hyperplasia in MMP9-/- mice during the first 2 weeks after injury but did in MMP2-/- mice, and PDGF did not promote neointimal hyperplasia in MMP2-/- mice during the second 2 weeks after injury but did in MMP9-/- mice. We used an in vitro system to treat vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) with TNF-α or PDGF; TNF-α induced MMP9, but not MMP2, expression at a fast reaction speed, while PDGF induced MMP2, but not MMP9, expression at a slow reaction speed. Meanwhile, TNF-α induced VSMC migration in a MMP9-dependent manner, and PDGF induced VSMC proliferation in a MMP2-dependent manner. Taken together, our studies elucidated the axis of TNF-α-MMP9-VSMC migration and PDGF-MMP2-VSMC proliferation, both of which contributed to the mechanism of neointimal hyperplasia formation.

MMP-2 is localized to the mitochondria-associated membrane of the heart.

Matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) has been extensively studied in the context of extracellular matrix remodeling but is also localized within cells and can be activated by prooxidants to proteolyze specific intercellular targets. Although there are reports of MMP-2 in mitochondria, a critical source of cellular oxidative stress, these studies did not take into account the presence within their preparations of the mitochondria-associated membrane (MAM), a subdomain of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). We hypothesized that MMP-2 is situated in the MAM and therefore investigated its subcellular distribution between mitochondria and the MAM. Immunogold electron microscopy revealed MMP-2 localized in mitochondria of heart sections from mice. In contrast, immunofluorescence analysis of an MMP-2:HaloTag fusion protein expressed in HL-1 cardiomyocytes showed an ER-like distribution, with greater colocalization with an ER marker (protein disulfide isomerase) relative to the mitochondrial marker, MitoTracker red. Although MMP-2 protein and enzymatic activity were present in crude mitochondrial fractions, once these were separated into purified mitochondria and MAM, MMP-2 was principally associated with the latter. Thus, although mitochondria may contain minimal levels of MMP-2, the majority of MMP-2 previously identified as "mitochondrial" is in fact associated with the MAM. We also found that calreticulin, an ER- and MAM-resident Ca(2+) handling protein and chaperone, could be proteolyzed by MMP-2 in vitro. MAM-localized MMP-2 could therefore potentially impact mitochondrial function by affecting ER-mitochondrial Ca(2+) signaling via its proteolysis of calreticulin.

Matrix metalloproteinase-2 deletions protect against hemorrhagic transformation after 1 h of cerebral ischemia and 23 h of reperfusion.

Although elevated matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 levels were highly related to the degradation of tight junction (TJ) proteins and basal lamina and neuronal injury after ischemia, until very recently, little experimental evidence was available to test the role of the MMP-2 knockout (KO) in blood-brain-barrier (BBB) injury and the development of hemorrhage transformation (HT). Here, we assessed the role of the MMP-2 KO in BBB injury, HT and other brain injuries after 1h of ischemia and 23 h of reperfusion. Middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) was performed in MMP-2 KO mice. Reperfusion was started 1h after the onset of MCAO. All mice were sacrificed 24h after the MCAO. MMP-2 deficiency reduced the decrease in protein levels of collagen IV and cellular membrane occludin (p<0.01 and 0.05 vs. wild-type (WT), respectively) and attenuated increase in cytosol occludin level in ischemic brain (p<0.01 vs. WT). The hemorrhage volume and brain infarction were significantly decreased in both the cortex and striatum in the MMP-2 KO mice (p<0.01 vs. WT). The MMP-2 KO also had reduced brain swelling in the cortex and improved neurological deficits (p<0.01 vs. WT). These studies provide direct evidence that targeting MMP-2 will effectively protect against collagen and occludin loss and HT after ischemia and reperfusion.