Cardiovascular toxicity of immune therapies for cancer.

In addition to conventional chemoradiation and targeted cancer therapy, the use of immune based therapies, specifically immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy (CAR-T), has increased exponentially across a wide spectrum of cancers. This has been paralleled by recognition of off-target immune related adverse events that can affect almost any organ system including the cardiovascular system. The use of ICIs has been associated with myocarditis, a less common but highly fatal adverse effect, pericarditis and pericardial effusions, vasculitis, thromboembolism, and potentially accelerated atherosclerosis. CAR-T resulting in a systemic cytokine release syndrome has been associated with myriad cardiovascular consequences including arrhythmias, myocardial infarction, and heart failure. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge regarding adverse cardiovascular effects associated with ICIs and CAR-T.

Clinical analysis of temporary pacemaker implantation in 6 children with fulminant myocarditis.

BACKGROUND: There is little literature on the use of temporary pacemakers in children with fulminant myocarditis. Therefore, we summarized the use of temporary cardiac pacemakers in children with fulminant myocarditis in our hospital. METHODS: The clinical data of children with fulminant myocarditis treated with temporary pacemakers in Wuhan Children's Hospital from January 2017 to May 2022 were retrospectively analyzed. RESULTS: A total of 6 children were enrolled in the study, including 4 boys and 2 girls, with a median age of 50 months and a median weight of 15 kg. The average time from admission to pacemaker placement was 2.75 ± 0.4 h. The electrocardiogram showed that all 6 children had third-degree atrioventricular block (III°AVB). The initial pacing voltage, the sensory sensitivity of the ventricle and the pacing frequency were set to 5-10 mV, 5 V and 100-120 bpm respectively. The sinus rhythm was recovered in 5 patients within 61 h (17-134) h, and the median time of using temporary pacemaker was 132 h (63-445) h. One of the children had persistent III°AVB after the temporary pacemaker. With parental consent, the child was fitted with a permanent pacemaker on the 12th day of his illness. CONCLUSIONS: When fulminant myocarditis leads to severe bradycardia or atrioventricular block in children, temporary pacemakers have the characteristics of high safety to improve the heart function.

RNA m5C methylation modification: a potential therapeutic target for SARS-CoV-2-associated myocarditis.

The Corona Virus Disease (COVID-19), caused by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), has quickly spread worldwide and resulted in significant morbidity and mortality. Although most infections are mild, some patients can also develop severe and fatal myocarditis. In eukaryotic RNAs, 5-methylcytosine (m5C) is a common kind of post-transcriptional modification, which is involved in regulating various biological processes (such as RNA export, translation, and stability maintenance). With the rapid development of m5C modification detection technology, studies related to viral m5C modification are ever-increasing. These studies have revealed that m5C modification plays an important role in various stages of viral replication, including transcription and translation. According to recent studies, m5C methylation modification can regulate SARS-CoV-2 infection by modulating innate immune signaling pathways. However, the specific role of m5C modification in SARS-CoV-2-induced myocarditis remains unclear. Therefore, this review aims to provide insights into the molecular mechanisms of m5C methylation in SARS-CoV-2 infection. Moreover, the regulatory role of NSUN2 in viral infection and host innate immune response was also highlighted. This review may provide new directions for developing therapeutic strategies for SARS-CoV-2-associated myocarditis.

Management of Select Adverse Events Following Delandistrogene Moxeparvovec Gene Therapy for Patients With Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy.

BACKGROUND: Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a rare, degenerative, recessive X-linked neuromuscular disease. Mutations in the gene encoding dystrophin lead to the absence of functional dystrophin protein. Individuals living with DMD exhibit progressive muscle weakness resulting in loss of ambulation and limb function, respiratory insufficiency, and cardiomyopathy, with multiorgan involvement. Adeno-associated virus vector-mediated gene therapy designed to enable production of functional dystrophin protein is a new therapeutic strategy. Delandistrogene moxeparvovec (Sarepta Therapeutics, Cambridge, MA) is indicated for treatment of ambulatory pediatric patients aged 4 through 5 years with DMD who have an indicated mutation in the DMD gene. OBJECTIVE: Evidence-based considerations for management of potential adverse events following gene therapy treatment for DMD are lacking in clinical literature. Our goal was to provide interdisciplinary consensus considerations for selected treatment-related adverse events (TRAEs) (vomiting, acute liver injury, myocarditis, and immune-mediated myositis) that may arise following gene therapy dosing with delandistrogene moxeparvovec. METHODS: An interdisciplinary panel of 12 specialists utilized a modified Delphi process to develop consensus considerations for the evaluation and management of TRAEs reported in delandistrogene moxeparvovec clinical studies. Panelists completed 2 Questionnaires prior to gathering for an in-person discussion. Consensus was defined as a majority (≥58% ; 7/12) of panelists either agreeing or disagreeing. RESULTS: Panelists agreed that the choice of baseline assessments should be informed by individual clinical indications, the treating provider's judgment, and prescribing information. Corticosteroid dosing for treatment of TRAEs should be optimized by considering individual risk versus benefit for each indication. In all cases involving patients with a confirmed TRAE, consultations with appropriate specialists were suggested. CONCLUSIONS: The Delphi Panel established consensus considerations for the evaluation and management of potential TRAEs for patients receiving delandistrogene moxeparvovec, including vomiting, acute liver injury, myocarditis, and immune-mediated myositis.

A multidisciplinary approach of a patient with pheochromocytoma presenting as recurrent acute fulminant myocarditis: A rare case report and comprehensive review of literature.

Fulminant myocarditis (FM) is a rare illness characterized by abrupt and severe widespread cardiac inflammation, which frequently results in mortality due to cardiogenic shock, ventricular arrhythmias, or multiorgan system failure. Pheochromocytoma is an uncommon and difficult-to-diagnose cause of FM, and it is associated with a significant risk of recurrent acute myocarditis. There is, however, little information on reoccurring acute FM. Herein, we report a rare case of recurrent acute FM due to pheochromocytoma. We present the case of a 22-year-old woman who was admitted to our hospital three days previously with acute dyspnea. Five months prior, the patient was diagnosed with post-acute myocarditis, and a massive tumor on the right adrenal gland was discovered, which lead to pheochromocytoma diagnosis. In this present admission, following the exclusion of infection, autoimmune, and metabolic derangements, pheochromocytoma was presumed to be the reason for the recurrence and more severe acute FM during the current hospitalization. The patient responded favorably to high-dose steroids combined with heart failure therapy regimens. To detect recurrent acute myocarditis related to pheochromocytoma, a multidisciplinary approach was used, including several laboratory biomarkers and imaging findings. Following pheochromocytoma removal and biopsy, the patient recovered satisfactorily. Our findings may provide beneficial contributions to the literature as pheochromocytoma is an uncommon but important cause of recurrent acute myocarditis. A multidisciplinary approach is essential in identifying acute FM and determining the underlying causes of this malady.

Cardiomyopathies in children and adolescents: aetiology, management, and outcomes in the European Society of Cardiology EURObservational Research Programme Cardiomyopathy and Myocarditis Registry.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Childhood-onset cardiomyopathies are rare and poorly characterized. This study examined the baseline characteristics and 1-year follow-up of children with cardiomyopathy in the first European Cardiomyopathy Registry. METHODS: Prospective data were collected on individuals aged 1-<18 years enrolled in the European Society of Cardiology EURObservational Research Programme Cardiomyopathy and Myocarditis long-term registry (June 2014-December 2016). RESULTS: A total of 633 individuals aged ≤18 years with hypertrophic [HCM; n = 388 (61.3%)], dilated [DCM; n = 206 (32.5%)], restrictive [RCM; n = 28 (4.4%)], and arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy [ARVC; n = 11 (1.7%)] were enrolled by 23 referral centres in 14 countries. Median age at diagnosis was 4.0 [interquartile range (IQR) 0-10] years, and there was a male predominance [n = 372 (58.8%)] across all subtypes, with the exception of DCM diagnosed <10 years of age; 621 (98.1%) patients were receiving cardiac medication and 80 (12.6%) had an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator. A total of 253 patients (253/535, 47.3%) had familial disease. Genetic testing was performed in 414 (67.8%) patients with a pathogenic or likely pathogenic variant reported in 250 (60.4%). Rare disease phenocopies were reported in 177 patients (28.0%) and were most frequent in patients under 10 years [142 (30.9%) vs. 35 (19.6%); P = .003]. Over a median follow-up of 12.5 months (IQR 11.3-15.3 months), 18 patients (3.3%) died [HCM n = 9 (2.6%), DCM n = 5 (3.0%), RCM n = 4 (16.0%)]. Heart failure events were most frequent in RCM patients (36.0%). CONCLUSIONS: The findings confirm the heterogeneous aetiology of childhood cardiomyopathies and show a high frequency of familial disease. Outcomes differed by cardiomyopathy subtype, highlighting a need for disease-specific evaluation and treatment.

Unraveling the Uncommon: A Case Report of Giant Cell Myocarditis and Examination of Existing Literature.

BACKGROUND Idiopathic giant cell myocarditis (IGCM) is an uncommon and frequently fatal type of myocarditis. It primarily affects young individuals and has the potential to result in heart failure and life-threatening arrhythmias. IGCM seems to be dependent on activation of CD4-positive T lymphocytes and can show improvement with treatment aimed at reducing T-cell function. We present a case of a 65-year-old patient who presented with features of acute heart failure refractory to guideline-directed medical therapy (GDMT), due to IGCM. A review of the natural history and treatment of IGCM is also presented. CASE REPORT A 65-year-old woman with multiple comorbidities was admitted to our hospital for ventricular tachycardia in the setting of progressive non-ischemic heart failure, unresponsive to GDMT. This led to further investigation, including an endomyocardial biopsy, which revealed inflammatory infiltration, with multinucleated giant cells and lymphocytes in the absence of granuloma formation, prompting a diagnosis of IGCM. An implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) was placed for secondary prevention of sudden cardiac death and the patient was initiated on combined immunosuppressive therapy. Owing to numerous comorbidities, she was determined to be unsuitable for a heart transplant. Unfortunately, she eventually died from complications secondary to the disease. CONCLUSIONS IGCM remains a challenging clinical diagnosis with a poor long-term outcome without heart transplantation. This case highlights the importance of considering atypical causes of heart failure in patients who do not respond to conventional therapies. Early recognition and appropriate management, involving medical and interventional approaches, are crucial in improving outcomes for patients with IGCM.

Chinese Society of Cardiology guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of adult fulminant myocarditis.

Fulminant myocarditis is an acute diffuse inflammatory disease of myocardium. It is characterized by acute onset, rapid progress and high risk of death. Its pathogenesis involves excessive immune activation of the innate immune system and formation of inflammatory storm. According to China's practical experience, the adoption of the "life support-based comprehensive treatment regimen" (with mechanical circulation support and immunomodulation therapy as the core) can significantly improve the survival rate and long-term prognosis. Special emphasis is placed on very early identification,very early diagnosis,very early prediction and very early treatment.

Cardiac Involvement in Patients With Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Adults.

Multisystemic inflammatory syndrome in adults is a hyperinflammatory condition following (within 4-12 weeks) SARS-CoV-2 infection. Here, the dysregulation of the immune system leads to a multiorgan involvement often affecting the heart. Cardiac involvement in multisystemic inflammatory syndrome in adults has been described mainly in young men without other comorbidities and may present with different clinical scenarios, including acute heart failure, life-threatening arrhythmias, pericarditis, and myocarditis, with a nonnegligible risk of mortality (up to 7% of all cases). The heterogeneity of its clinical features and the absence of a clear case definition make the differential diagnosis with other postinfectious (eg, infective myocarditis) and hyperinflammatory diseases (eg, adult Still disease and macrophage activation syndrome) challenging. Moreover, the evidence on the efficacy of specific treatments targeting the hyperinflammatory response underlying this clinical condition (eg, glucocorticoids, immunoglobulins, and other immunomodulatory agents) is sparse and not supported by randomized clinical trials. In this review article, we aim to provide an overview of the clinical features and the diagnostic workup of multisystemic inflammatory syndrome in adults with cardiac involvement, highlighting the possible pathogenetic mechanisms and the therapeutic management, along with remaining knowledge gaps in this field.

Clinical characteristics, diagnosis and management of nivolumab-induced myocarditis.

Nivolumab can cause fatal myocarditis. We aimed to analyze the clinical characteristics of nivolumab-induced myocarditis and provide evidence for clinical diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Studies involving nivolumab-induced myocarditis were identified in electronic databases from 2000 to 2023 for retrospective analysis. A total of 66 patients were included, with a median age of 68 years. The median onset time of myocarditis is 11.5 days. The main organs affected in persons presented with myocarditis are heart (100.0%) and skeletal muscle (22.7%). The main clinical manifestations are dyspnea (49.2%), fatigue (47.6%), and myalgias (25.4%). The levels of troponin, troponin T, troponin I, creatine kinase, creatine kinase myocardial band, creatine phosphokinase, C-reactive protein, brain natriuretic peptide, and N-terminal brain natriuretic peptide precursor were significantly increased. Histopathology often shows lymphocyte infiltration, myocardial necrosis, and fibrosis. Myocardial immunological parameters usually present positive. Cardiac imaging often suggests complete heart block, intraventricular conduction delay, arrhythmia, myocardial infarction, edema, left ventricular ejection fractions reduction, ventricular dysfunction, and other symptoms of myocarditis. Forty-two (63.6%) patients achieved remission within a median time of 8 days after discontinuation of nivolumab and treatment with systemic corticosteroids, immunoglobulins, plasmapheresis, and immunosuppressant. Thirty-five patients eventually died attributed to myocarditis (68.6%), cancer (20.0%), respiratory failure (5.7%), and other reasons (5.7%). Nivolumab-induced myocarditis should be comprehensively diagnosed based on clinical symptoms, histopathological manifestations, immunological parameters, and cardiac function imaging examinations. Nivolumab should be discontinued immediately, plasmapheresis and systemic corticosteroids combined with immunoglobulins or immunosuppressants may be an effective treatment.

Exercise After Acute Myocarditis: When and How to Return to Sports.

Myocarditis is an inflammatory disease of the myocardium secondary to infectious and noninfectious insults. The most feared consequence of myocarditis is sudden cardiac death owing to electrical instability and arrhythmia. Typical presenting symptoms include chest pain, dyspnea, palpitations and/or heart failure. Diagnosis is usually made with history, electrocardiogram, biomarkers, echocardiogram, and cardiac MRI (CMR). Application of the Lake Louise criteria to CMR results can help identify cases of myocarditis. Treatment is usually supportive with medical therapy, and patients are recommended to abstain from exercise for 3 to 6 months. Exercise restrictions may be lifted after normalization on follow-up testing.

Advances in myocarditis management in the light of the latest research and recent guidelines of the European Society of Cardiology.

Myocarditis remains an unknown disease with varying clinical manifestations, often leading to heart failure. The latest 2021 and 2022 guidelines of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) are the first official European documents updating knowledge on the diagnosis and treatment of myocarditis since the 2013 ESC expert consensus statement. These guidelines and new studies allow standardization and improvements to the management of myocarditis. In this review, we discuss the most important aspects of myocarditis diagnosis, therapies and follow-up based on current knowledge.

Protective effect of low-intensity pulsed ultrasound on immune checkpoint inhibitor-related myocarditis via fine-tuning CD4+ T-cell differentiation.

PURPOSE: Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have transformed traditional cancer treatments. Specifically, ICI-related myocarditis is an immune-related adverse event (irAE) with high mortality. ICIs activate CD4+ T-lymphocyte reprogramming, causing an imbalance between Th17 and Treg cell differentiation, ultimately leading to myocardial inflammatory damage. Low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) can limit inflammatory responses, with positive therapeutic effects across various cardiovascular inflammatory diseases; however, its role in the pathogenesis of ICI-related myocarditis and CD4+ T-cell dysfunction remains unclear. Accordingly, this study investigated whether LIPUS can alleviate ICI-related myocarditis inflammatory damage and, if so, aimed to elucidate the beneficial effects of LIPUS and its underlying molecular mechanisms. METHODS: An in vivo model of ICI-related myocarditis was obtained by intraperitonially injecting male A/J mice with an InVivoPlus anti-mouse PD-1 inhibitor. LIPUS treatment was performed via an ultrasound-guided application to the heart via the chest wall. The echocardiographic parameters were observed and cardiac function was assessed using an in vivo imaging system. The expression of core components of the HIPPO pathway was analyzed via western blotting. RESULTS: LIPUS treatment reduced cardiac immune responses and inflammatory cardiac injury. Further, LIPUS treatment alleviated the inflammatory response in mice with ICI-related myocarditis. Mechanistically, in the HIPPO pathway, the activation of Mst1-TAZ axis improved autoimmune inflammation by altering the interaction between the transcription factors FOXP3 and RORγt and regulating the differentiation of Treg and Th17 cells. CONCLUSION: LIPUS therapy was shown to reduce ICI-related myocarditis inflammatory damage and improve cardiac function, representing an exciting finding for irAEs treatment.

Myocarditis and Pericarditis.

Pericarditis typically presents with classic symptoms of acute sharp, retrosternal, and pleuritic chest pain. It can have several different underlying causes including viral, bacterial, and autoimmune etiologies. The mainstays of pericarditis treatment are nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and colchicine with glucocorticoids or other immunosuppressive drugs used for refractory cases and relapse. Myocarditis is an inflammatory disease of the cardiac muscle that is caused by a variety of infectious and noninfectious conditions. It mainly affects young adults (median age 30-45 years), and men more than women. The clinical manifestations of myocarditis are highly variable, so a high level of suspicion in the early stage of disease is important to facilitate diagnosis. The treatment of myocarditis includes nonspecific treatment aimed at complications such as heart failure and arrhythmia, as well as specific treatment aimed at underlying causes. Pericarditis and myocarditis associated with vaccine have been extremely rare before coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). There is a small increase of incidence after COVID-19 messenger ribonucleic acid vaccine, but the relative risk for pericarditis and myocarditis due to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection is much higher. Therefore, vaccination against COVID-19 is currently recommended for everyone aged 6 years and older.

Contemporary Care and Outcomes of Critically-ill Children With Clinically Diagnosed Myocarditis.

PURPOSE: To describe contemporary management and outcomes in children with myocarditis who are admitted to a cardiac intensive care unit (CICU) and to identify the characteristics associated with mortality. METHODS: All patients in the Pediatric Cardiac Critical Care Consortium (PC4) registry between August 2014 and June 2021 who were diagnosed with myocarditis were included. Univariable analyses and multivariable logistic regression evaluated the factors associated with in-hospital mortality. RESULTS: There were 847 CICU admissions for myocarditis in 51 centers. The median age was 12 years (IQR 2.7-16). In-hospital mortality occurred in 53 patients (6.3%), and 60 (7.1%) had cardiac arrest during admission. Mechanical ventilation was required in 339 patients (40%), and mechanical circulatory support (MCS) in 177 (21%); extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO)-only in 142 (16.7%), ECMO-to-ventricular assist device (VAD) in 20 (2.4%), extracorporeal cardiac resuscitation in 43 (5%), and VAD-only in 15 (1.8%) patients. MCS was associated with in-hospital mortality; 20.3% receiving MCS died compared to 2.5% without MCS (P < 0.001). Mortality rates were similar in ECMO-only, ECMO-to-VAD and VAD-only groups. The median time from CICU admission to ECMO was 2.0 hours (IQR 0-9.4) and to VAD, it was 9.9 days (IQR 6.3-16.8). Time to MCS was not associated with mortality. In multivariable modeling of patients' characteristics, smaller body surface area (BSA) and low eGFR were independently associated with mortality, and after including critical therapies, mechanical ventilation and ECMO were independent predictors of mortality. CONCLUSION: This contemporary cohort of children admitted to CICUs with myocarditis commonly received high-resource therapies; however, most patients survived to hospital discharge and rarely received VAD. Smaller patient size, acute kidney injury and receipt of mechanical ventilation or ECMO were independently associated with mortality.

The diagnosis and treatment of pediatric clinical myocarditis in China: a multicenter retrospective study.

This study aims to examine the clinical characteristics and outcomes of clinical myocarditis in pediatric patients in China. This is a multicenter retrospective study. Children diagnosed with clinical myocarditis from 20 hospitals in China and admitted between January 1, 2015, and December 30, 2021, were enrolled. The clinical myocarditis was diagnosed based on the "Diagnostic Recommendation for Myocarditis in Children (Version 2018)". The clinical data were collected from their medical records. A total of 1210 patients were finally enrolled in this study. Among them, 45.6% had a history of respiratory tract infection. An abnormal electrocardiogram was observed in 74.2% of patients. Echocardiography revealed that 32.3% of patients had a left ventricular ejection fraction of less than 50%. Cardiac MRI was performed in 4.9% of children with clinical myocarditis, of which 61% showed localized or diffuse hypersignal on T2-weighted images. Serum levels of cardiac troponin I (cTnI), creatine kinase-MB (CK-MB), and N-terminal B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) were higher in patients with fulminant myocarditis than in patients with myocarditis, making them potential risk factors for fulminant myocarditis. Following active treatment, 12.1% of patients were cured, and 79.1% were discharged with improvement. CONCLUSION: Clinical myocarditis in children often presents with symptoms outside the cardiovascular system. CK-MB, cTnI, and NT-proBNP are important indicators for assessing clinical myocarditis. The electrocardiogram and echocardiogram findings in children with clinical myocarditis exhibit significant variability but lack specificity. Cardiac MRI can be a useful tool for screening clinical myocarditis. Most children with clinical myocarditis have a favorable prognosis. WHAT IS KNOWN: • Pediatric myocarditis presents complex clinical manifestations and exhibits varying degrees of severity. Children with mild myocarditis generally have a favorable prognosis, while a small number of children with critically ill myocarditis experience sudden onset, hemodynamic disorders, and fatal arrhythmias. Therefore, early diagnosis and timely treatment of myocarditis are imperative. WHAT IS NEW: • To the best of our knowledge, this multicenter retrospective study is the largest ever reported in China, aiming to reveal the clinical characteristics and outcomes of pediatric clinical myocarditis in China. We provided an extensive analysis of the clinical characteristics, diagnosis, treatment, prognosis, and factors impacting disease severity in pediatric clinical myocarditis in China, which provides insights into the epidemiological characteristics of pediatric clinical myocarditis.

Paradigm shift in myocarditis treatment.

Although most cases of myocarditis are self-limiting with a gradual improvement in cardiac function, the involvement of myocarditis in sudden cardiac death among children and young adults remains substantial, with rates of 3-17 % and 8.6-12 %, respectively. Moreover, the risk of developing chronic dilated cardiomyopathy ranges from 21 % to 30 % in all cases confirmed by biopsy. Current therapeutic strategies for myocarditis and its complications range from standard supportive care for heart failure and arrhythmias to etiologically oriented, case-based therapeutic options. For example, immunosuppression is indicated only in certain forms of acute myocarditis with clinical or endomyocardial biopsy evidence of immune checkpoint inhibitor-induced myocarditis and autoimmune diseases, including giant cell myocarditis, eosinophilic myocarditis, vasculitis, or cardiac sarcoidosis. However, our views on myocarditis treatment have changed considerably over the past two decades, thanks to the emergence of regenerative cells/tissues as well as drug and gene delivery systems. Cell-based therapies are now growing in popularity in any field of medicine. Studies evaluating the therapeutic efficacy of different stem cells in the treatment of acute myocarditis and its chronic complications have shown that although the experimental characteristics varied from study to study, in general, these strategies reduced inflammation and myocardial fibrosis while preventing myocarditis-induced systolic dysfunction and adverse remodeling in animal models.

Sex differences in myocarditis hospitalizations: Rates, outcomes, and hospital characteristics in the National Readmission Database.

Inflammation of the myocardium, or myocarditis, presents with varied severity, from mild to life-threatening such as cardiogenic shock or ventricular tachycardia storm. Existing data on sex-related differences in its presentation and outcomes are scarce. Using the Nationwide Readmission Database (2016-2019), we identified myocarditis hospitalizations and stratified them according to sex to either males or females. Multivariable regression analyses were used to determine the association between sex and myocarditis outcomes. The primary outcome was in-hospital mortality, and the secondary outcomes included sudden cardiac death (SCD), cardiogenic shock (CS), use of mechanical circulatory support (MCS), and 90-day readmissions. We found a total of 12,997 myocarditis hospitalizations, among which 4,884 (37.6 %) were females. Compared to males, females were older (51 ± 15.6 years vs. 41.9 ± 14.8 in males) and more likely to have connective tissue disease, obesity, and a history of coronary artery disease. No differences were noted between the two groups with regards to in-hospital mortality (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.20; confidence interval [CI] 0.93-1.53; P = 0.16), SCD (aOR:1.18; CI 0.84-1.64; P = 0.34), CS (aOR: 1.01; CI 0.85-1.20;P = 0.87), or use of MCS (aOR: 1.07; CI:0.86-1.34; P = 0.56). In terms of interventional procedures, females had lower rates of coronary angiography (aOR: 0.78; CI 0.70-0.88; P < 0.01), however, similar rates of right heart catheterization (aOR 0.93; CI:0.79-1.09; P = 0.36) and myocardial biopsy (aOR: 1.16; CI:0.83-1.62; P = 0.38) compared to males. Additionally, females had a higher risk of 90-day all-cause readmission (aOR: 1.25; CI: 1.16-1.56; P < 0.01) and myocarditis readmission (aOR:1.58; CI 1.02-2.44; P = 0.04). Specific predictors of readmission included essential hypertension, congestive heart failure, malignancy, and peripheral vascular disease. In conclusion, females admitted with myocarditis tend to have similar in-hospital outcomes with males; however, they are at higher risk of readmission within 90 days from hospitalization. Further studies are needed to identify those at higher risk of readmission.