Sudden unexpected death in Parkinson's disease: why is drinking water important?

Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most common age-related neurodegenerative disorders. Several studies over the last few years have shown that PD is accompanied by high rates of premature death compared with healthy controls. Death in PD patients is usually caused by determinant factors such as pneumonia, and cerebrovascular and cardiovascular diseases. During recent years it has emerged that dehydration may also contribute to mortality in PD. Interestingly, it has been documented that a substantial proportion of patients with PD die suddenly (known as sudden and unexpected death in PD). In this article, we focus on the magnitude of the problem of sudden and unexpected death in PD, with special reference to the daily water consumption of PD patients.

Parkinson's disease: nursing care in emergency settings.

In the UK 127,000 people are diagnosed with Parkinson's disease, many of whom are frequently admited to hospital. However, Parkinson's disease is not usually the primary cause of admission. Emergency department (ED) nurses must be aware of the medication needs of people with Parkinson's disease and how these can be met in emergency setings to ensure the stability of their condition and to prevent the development of neuroleptic malignant syndrome, a potentially fatal condition caused by abrupt omission of Parkinson's medication. This article highlights the importance of ensuring that patients with Parkinson's disease continue their medication regimen while in an ED, even if they are temporarily unable to swallow, and uses a case study to illustrate various ways of achieving this.

Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: A neuro-psychiatric emergency: Recognition, prevention, and management.

Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome (NMS) is a life threatening complication of antipsychotic therapy. It is often assumed to be rare. Observations suggest that rather than overestimating its frequency, we are more likely to underestimate it (Pope et al., 1986). It is a rare but potentially fatal disorder characterized by four principal symptoms. These are mental status changes, muscle rigidity, hyperthermia, and autonomic dysfunction. The diagnosis of NMS often presents a challenge because several medical conditions generate similar symptoms. Although less common now than in the past, thanks to greater awareness, it remains a risk in susceptible patients receiving conventional or atypical neuroleptics. Reducing the risk factors, early recognition of suspected cases, and prompt management can significantly reduce morbidity and mortality of this dangerous condition. Collaboration between psychiatry and other medical specialities may be the key to a successful outcome.

Neuroleptic malignant syndrome induced by lamotrigine.

This case report describes a 54-year-old man with bipolar I disorder who was treated with aripiprazole (ARP) and lithium. The patient was admitted to our hospital because of aggravation of depressive symptoms, and treatment with lamotrigine (LTG) was initiated. Two weeks after admission, we discontinued administration of ARP after the appearance of a tremor. Three weeks after discontinuing ARP, the patient developed a high fever, rigidity of the arms, diarrhea, dysphagia, and diaphoresis. We suspected these symptoms were consistent with neuroleptic malignant syndrome and therefore removed the application of LTG. After 2 days, most of the patient's symptoms and blood results had improved, leading us to conclude that the LTG treatment had induced neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Thus, the purpose of this case report was to warn psychiatrists against therapy with LTG, as it may be conducive to neuroleptic malignant syndrome.

[Case of neuroleptic malignant syndrome following open heart surgery for thoracic aortic aneurysm with parkinson's disease].

An 80-year-old woman with Parkinson's disease was scheduled for open heart surgery to repair thoracic aortic aneurysm. Parkinson's symptoms were normally treated using oral levodopa (200 mg), selegiline-hydrochloride (5 mg), bromocriptine-mesilate (2 mg), and amantadine-hydrochloride (200 mg) daily. On the day before surgery, levodopa 50mg was infused intravenously. Another 25 mg of levodopa was infused immediately after surgery. Twenty hours later, the patient developed tremors, heyperventilation, but no obvious muscle rigidity. Two days after surgery, the patient exhibited high fever, hydropoiesis, elevated creatine kinase, and a rise in blood leukocytes. She was diagnosed with neuroleptic malignant syndrome. She was intubated, and received dantrolene sodium. Symptoms of neuroleptic malignant syndrome disappeared on the fourth postoperative day. The stress of open heart surgery, specifically extracorporeal circulation and concomitant dilution of levodopa, triggered neuroleptic malignant syndrome in this patient. Parkinson's patients require higher doses of levodopa prior to surgery to compensate and prevent neuroleptic malignant syndrome after surgery.

Potential therapy of multidrug-resistant and extremely drug-resistant tuberculosis with thioridazine.

Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDRTB) infections that continue to increase in frequency globally have progressed to become extremely drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDRTB). The therapeutic problems associated with MDRTB pale in comparison to those for XDRTB where mortality is high. This mini-review highlights the evidence that supports the use of the phenothiazine neuroleptic thioridazine for the therapy of XDRTB. Although thioridazine does produce some serious side-effects, the poor prognosis associated with an XDRTB infection of a patient that presents with AIDS merits that the use of thioridazine for therapy of XDRTB is seriously considered. A recommended protocol is presented.

Catatonia and its treatment.

Psychiatric diagnoses are currently categorized on a syndromic basis. The syndrome of catatonia, however, remains in a diagnostic limbo, acknowledged predominantly as a subtype of schizophrenia. Yet, catatonia is present in about 10% of acutely ill psychiatry patients, only a minority of whom have schizophrenia. Among those with comorbid affective disorders, who comprise the largest subgroup of catatonic patients, the catatonic signs typically resolve dramatically and completely with benzodiazepine therapy. Those with schizophrenia respond less reliably, suggesting that the underlying processes causing the catatonia may be different in this group. The majority of patients with catatonia have concurrent psychosis. Failure to treat the catatonia before institution of antipsychotic medication may increase the risk of inducing neuroleptic malignant syndrome. At this point of time, the pathobiology of catatonia is unknown; the major reason for considering catatonia as a separate diagnostic entity would be to increase recognition of this eminently treatable neuropsychiatric syndrome.

Postoperative neuroleptic malignant syndrome that occurred repeatedly in a patient with cerebral palsy.

A wide variety of neuroleptic agents are associated with neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS). However, the association between general anesthesia and NMS is uncertain. We report a case of a patient with cerebral palsy, who showed signs of NMS only after repeated general anesthesia. The patient received general anesthesia three times in a period of 9 months. The first anesthetic passed uneventfully. NMS symptoms were observed only after the second and third anesthetics. The NMS was effectively treated with IV dantrolene and the patient recovered on both occasions. Inhalational anesthetics, muscle relaxants and fentanyl were suspected as possible triggering factors for NMS. After examining the three anesthesia records and previous publications, we surmized that a nondepolarizing muscle relaxant was associated with NMS in this patient.

Relating with professionals.

This paper addresses my difficulties as a carer in engaging with many professionals in mental health, both locally associated with my son's acute inpatient care, and nationally where policies are being developed and their implementation is pursued. All of us are affected by The Department of Health (DoH) Mental Health policies and their implementation by professionals has formed the way in which professionals relate with my son and myself. The way in which my son is impacted inextricably affects the way I relate to professionals. I think my difficulty in engaging lies in the relationships we all have with each another. In focusing on the process within our relationships, I attempt to raise professionals' awareness of what constitutes a relationship when we dialogue. As it takes two to engage in a dialogue, I perceive my difficulty is also the difficulty of the professionals. Carers are becoming increasingly involved in the training of mental health professionals and our combined difficulty needs to be resolved, so that we all benefit. In order to achieve positive progression, there needs to be a radical change within our relationship to provide ease of engagement from all parties. In this paper I tentatively suggest how this process can be achieved.

[Studies of risk factors and preventive care for neuroleptic malignant syndrome].

Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) is a life-threatening complication of anti-psychotic treatment and can occur any time during the course of treatment. Since NMS can occur in any subject treated with anti-psychotic drugs, causing senously adverse side effects, prevention of NMS is one of the most important issues in clinical psychiatry. Although therapeutic guidelines for NMS have been proposed and gradually put in place, the pathogenesis has not been fully elucidated. Prevention of NMS consists of three approaches: removal of pathogenetic factors, understanding of initial symptoms and consideration of the administration of preventive drugs. Risk factors for NMS are inherited factors, individual factors and environmental factors. The overlapping of these factors might lead to fulminant NMS. These risk factors such as environmental factors are enumerated in DSM-IV. We meta-analyzed the case-control studies of the risk factors for NMS, because the evaluation of each risk factor has not been studied yet. The results were as follows: mental retardation, psychiatric manifestations such as agitation and excitement as individual factors. High dosage administration, rapid increase and parenteral administration of antipsychotic drugs are the drug factors. It is hopeful to give preventive care, such as precautionary measurement of autonomic dysfunction, and treatment to these groups at high risk for NMS.

[Prevention and treatment of malignant syndrome in patients with Parkinson's disease].

This article summarizes the prevention and treatment of malignant syndrome (MS) in Parkinson's disease. MS is often induced by sudden withdrawal of levodopa. However, many other events can be responsible for the induction of MS, including concomitant infections, dehydration, hot weather, discontinuation of other antiparkinsonian drugs, and 'wearing off' phenomenon. MS should be suspected when the body temperature rises above 38 degrees C without an apparent cause. The early detection and its prompt commencement of treatment are essential for improving the prognosis of the disease. The treatment consists of ample intravenous fluid, cooling the body, antiparkinsonian drugs (particularly, levodopa and bromocriptine), dantrolene sodium, and antibiotics if infection is present.

Drug-induced hyperthermia in Huntington's disease.

Until now, only three patients with Huntington's disease (HD) and a neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) have been reported in the literature. We describe four cases with advanced stage Huntington's disease who within a period of one year developed drug-induced hyperthermia, either the neuroleptic malignant syndrome, or the serotonin syndrome. Possible contributing factors that may have been specific for HD patients could be identified and included advanced neurological disease with severe illness, occurrence in summer, with possible infectious disease, dehydration, and pre-existing extra-pyramidal signs that may mask incipient NMS/serotonin syndrome. Measures to avoid these potentially lifethreatening conditions are discussed.

[Considerations in the combination of clozapine and benzodiazepines]. / Zur Problematik der Kombination von Clozapin mit Benzodiazepinen.

Serious adverse events and even sudden death have been reported during administration of the combination of clozapine and benzodiazepines. However, this combination does not necessarily result in increased frequency of serious adverse events. Thus it is not regarded as an absolute contraindication and might be useful in distinct clinical situations, e.g., during the occurrence of a malignant neuroleptic syndrome, "catatonic dilemma," or severe agitation during clozapine treatment. In the following report, certain suggestions on how to deal with this combination therapy are provided which may provide a basis for discussion that ultimately may lead to the formulation of guidelines for this combination therapy. Such guidelines may help psychiatrists in dealing with this combination in clinical situations. Moreover, the formulation of such guidelines would help with forensic issues in case of serious adverse events occurring during this combination therapy.

Neuroleptic malignant syndrome induced by atypical antipsychotics.

A review of the English literature confirms that neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) occurs with both traditional and atypical antipsychotic medications. Published reports of NMS induced by the traditional antipsychotics have given the practitioner valuable information on the prevention and treatment of this adverse effect. Case reports have also been published concerning NMS and clozapine, risperidone, olanzapine and quetiapine. By evaluating the case reports of atypical antipsychotic-induced NMS, valuable information may be obtained concerning similarities or differences from that induced by the traditional antipsychotics. The case reports of NMS with atypical antipsychotics were evaluated for diagnosis, age/sex of patient, risk factors, antipsychotic doses and duration of use, symptoms of NMS, and clinical course.